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| Versions and authors | |
| 2>
There are several versions of Swadesh alone. Swadesh started (1950:p161) with a list of 225 meanings, reduced there to 165 words for the Salish language; in 1952: p456f he published a list of 215 meanings, of which he suggested to cancel 16 not universal or clear enough, with one added to arrive at 200 words. In 1955: p127 he again listed a "lexi(costatisti)cal test list" with 215 meanings, of which the 92 most favourable ones were marked with an asterisk. Eight better suitable ones were added to reach the full 100 universe, again improved and finally published in 1971:p283 and 1972. This final 100-word list of 1971:p283 (=1972) was the result of his lifetime experience, repeatedly tested for universal usability and unambiguity. Thus, this one alone deserves the label "Swadesh list" and is now listed below.
Other versions of lexicostatistical test lists were published e.g. by R.B. Lees (1953), John A. Rea (1958), D. Wilson (1969 with 57 meanings), M.L. Bender (1969), R.L. Oswald (1971), W.P. Lehmann (1984), D. Ringe (1992, passim, different versions), S.A. Starostin (1984, passim, different versions), William S.Y. Wang (1994), M. Lohr (2000, 128 meanings in 18 languages). B. Kessler (2002), and many others. Frequently used, not for any proven quality, but for its electronical availability via the internet is the version of I.Dyen (1992, 200 meanings of 95 language variants).
[edit] Tags:Salish Language,R.b. Lees,M.l. Bender,W.p. Lehmann,S.a. Starostin, | |
| Principle | |
| 2>
One of frequent errors about Swadesh's principle has been that it had been chosen as a "basic" list in the sense of language acquisition, e.g. comparable to the "Basic English Vocabulary". A second frequent error is the assumption that Swadesh chose the meanings for their stability. In fact the lists were chosen for their universal, cultural independent, availability in as many languages as possible. Nevertheless, stability has been analyzed by different authors, e.g. M. Lohr 1999,2000.[1]
[edit] Tags:Basic English, | |
| Usage in lexicostatistics and glottochronology | |
| 2>
Such lexicostatistical test lists are used in lexicostatistics to define the subgrouping of languages, and in glottochronology to "provide dates for branching-points in the tree".[2] Note that the task of defining (and counting the number) of cognate words in the list is far from trivial, and too often is subject to dispute, because cognates do not necessarily look similar, and recognition of cognates presupposes knowledge of the sound laws of the respective languages. For example, English 'wheel' and Sanskrit 'chakra' are cognates, although they are not recognizable as such without knowledge of the history of both languages. For more details, see the main articles.
[edit] Tags:Lexicostatistics,Glottochronology,Sound Laws,Chakra,Cognates,Cognate, | |
| Original final Swadesh list (1971:283, postmortem) | |
| 2>
Essential explanations are only given in Swadesh 1952:456-7 and 1955* (Hans J. Holm 2011-04-20).
No. Meaning / Concept
I (Pers.Pron.1.Sg.)
You (2.sg! 1952 thou & ye)
we (1955: inclusive)
this
that
who? (“?” not 1971)
what? (“?” not 1971)
not
all (of a number)
many
one
two
big
long (not 'wide')
small
woman
man (adult male human)
person (individual human)
fish (noun)
bird
dog
louse
tree (not log)
seed (noun!)
leaf (botanics)
root (botanics)
bark (of tree)
skin (1952: person’s)
flesh (1952 meat, flesh)
blood
bone
grease (1952: fat, organic substance)
egg
horn (of bull etc, not 1952)*7
tail
feather (large, not down)
hair (on head of humans)
head (anatomic)
ear
eye
nose
mouth
tooth (front, rather than molar)
tongue (anatomical)
claw (not in 1952)*6
foot (not leg)
knee (not 1952)*5
hand
belly (lower part of body, abdomen)
neck (not nape!)
breasts (female; 1955 still breast)*8
heart
liver
drink (verb)
eat (verb)
bite (verb)
see (verb)
hear (verb)
know (facts)
sleep (verb)
die (verb)
kill (verb)
swim (verb)
fly (verb)
walk (verb)
come (verb)
lie (on side, recline)
sit (verb)
stand (verb)
give (verb)
say (verb)*1
sun
moon (not 1952)*2
star
water (noun)
rain (noun, 1952 verb)
stone
sand (opposite to following)
earth (=soil)
cloud (not fog)
smoke (noun, of fire)
fire
ash(es)
burn (verb intr.!)
path (1952 road, trail; not street)
mountain (not hill)
red (colour)
green (colour)
yellow (colour)
white (colour)
black (colour)
night
hot (adverb; 1952 warm, of weather)
cold (of weather)
full *4
new
good
round (not 1952)*3
dry (substance!)
name
Note *6 "Claw" was only added in 1955, but again replaced by many well-known specialists with (finger)nail, because expressions for "claw" are not available in many old, died-out, or lesser known languages.
[edit] Tags: | |
| Shorter lists | |
| 2>
The Swadesh–Yakhontov list is a 35-word subset of the Swadesh list posited as especially stable by Russian linguist Sergei Yakhontov (Starostin 1991). It has been used in lexicostatistics by linguists such as Sergei Starostin. With their Swadesh numbers, they are:
1. I
2. you (singular)
7. this
11. who
12. what
22. one
23. two
45. fish
47. dog
48. louse
64. blood
65. bone
67. egg
68. horn
69. tail
73. ear
74. eye
75. nose
77. tooth
78. tongue
83. hand
103. know
109. die
128. give
147. sun
148. moon
150. water
155. salt
156. stone
163. wind
167. fire
179. year
182. full
183. new
207. name
Holman et al. (2008) found that the Swadesh-Yakhontov list was less accurate than the Swadesh-100 list in identifying the relationships between Chinese dialects. However, they calculated the relative stability of the words by comparing retentions between languages in established language families, and found that a different 40-word list was just as accurate as the Swadesh-100 list. They found no statistically significant difference in the correlations in the families of the Old versus the New World. The ranked Swadesh-100 list, with Swadesh numbers and relative stability, is as follows (Holman et al., Appendix. Asterisked words appear on the 40-word list):
22 *louse (42.8)
12 *two (39.8)
75 *water (37.4)
39 *ear (37.2)
61 *die (36.3)
1 *I (35.9)
53 *liver (35.7)
40 *eye (35.4)
48 *hand (34.9)
58 *hear (33.8)
23 *tree (33.6)
19 *fish (33.4)
100 *name (32.4)
77 *stone (32.1)
43 *tooth (30.7)
51 *breasts (30.7)
2 *you (30.6)
85 *path (30.2)
31 *bone (30.1)
44 *tongue (30.1)
28 *skin (29.6)
92 *night (29.6)
25 *leaf (29.4)
76 rain (29.3)
62 kill (29.2)
30 *blood (29.0)
34 *horn (28.8)
18 *person (28.7)
47 *knee (28.0)
11 *one (27.4)
41 *nose (27.3)
95 *full (26.9)
66 *come (26.8)
74 *star (26.6)
86 *mountain (26.2)
82 *fire (25.7)
3 *we (25.4)
54 *drink (25.0)
57 *see (24.7)
27 bark (24.5)
96 *new (24.3)
21 *dog (24.2)
72 *sun (24.2)
64 fly (24.1)
32 grease (23.4)
73 moon (23.4)
70 give (23.3)
52 heart (23.2)
36 feather (23.1)
90 white (22.7)
89 yellow (22.5)
20 bird (21.8)
38 head (21.7)
79 earth (21.7)
46 foot (21.6)
91 black (21.6)
42 mouth (21.5)
88 green (21.1)
60 sleep (21.0)
7 what (20.7)
26 root (20.5)
45 claw (20.5)
56 bite (20.5)
83 ash (20.3)
87 red (20.2)
55 eat (20.0)
33 egg (19.8)
6 who (19.0)
99 dry (18.9)
37 hair (18.6)
81 smoke (18.5)
8 not (18.3)
4 this (18.2)
24 seed (18.2)
16 woman (17.9)
98 round (17.9)
14 long (17.4)
69 stand (17.1)
97 good (16.9)
17 man (16.7)
94 cold (16.6)
29 flesh (16.4)
50 neck (16.0)
71 say (16.0)
84 burn (15.5)
35 tail (14.9)
78 sand (14.9)
5 that (14.7)
65 walk (14.4)
68 sit (14.3)
10 many (14.2)
9 all (14.1)
59 know (14.1)
80 cloud (13.9)
63 swim (13.6)
49 belly (13.5)
13 big (13.4)
93 hot (11.6)
67 lie (11.2)
15 small (6.3)
[edit] Tags:Sergei Yakhontov,Sergei Starostin, | |
| Sign languages | |
| 3>
In studying the sign languages of Vietnam and Thailand, linguist James Woodward noted that the traditional Swadesh list applied to spoken languages was unsuited for sign languages. The Swadesh list results in overestimation of the relationships between sign languages, due to indexical signs such as pronouns and parts of the body. The modified list is as follows, in largely alphabetical order:[3]
all
animal
bad
because
bird
black
blood
child
count
day
die
dirty
dog
dry
dull
dust
earth
egg
grease
father
feather
fire
fish
flower
good
grass
green
heavy
how
hunt
husband
ice
if
kill
laugh
leaf
lie
live
long
louse
man
meat
mother
mountain
name
narrow
new
night
not
old
other
person
play
rain
red
correct
river
rope
salt
sea
sharp
short
sing
sit
smooth
snake
snow
stand
star
stone
sun
tail
thin
tree
vomit
warm
water
wet
what
when
where
white
who
wide
wife
wind
with
woman
wood
worm
year
yellow
full
moon
brother
cat
dance
pig
sister
work
[edit] Tags:Sign Languages Of Vietnam,Thailand,Sign Languages, | |
| See also | |
| 2>
A General Service List of English Words
Basic English
Cognate
Glottochronology
Historical linguistics
Indo-European studies
Intercontinental Dictionary Series
Lexicostatistics
Mass lexical comparison
Proto-language
Swadesh lists for hundreds of languages at Wiktionary, grouped by language family
Swadesh lists for hundreds of languages at Wiktionary, listed by individual language
The (brief) Wiktionary entry for the term 'Swadesh lists'
[edit] Tags:A General Service List Of English Words,Historical Linguistics,Indo-european Studies,Intercontinental Dictionary Series,Mass Lexical Comparison, | |
| References | |
| 2>
^ Marisa Lohr (2000): New approaches to lexicostatistics and glottochronology. In: C. Renfrew, A McMahon & L. Trask (Eds), Time Depth in Historical Linguistics, Vol. 1, Chapt. 10: 209-223
^ Sheila Embleton 1992. In: W. Bright (Ed),International Encyclopaedia of Linguistics, Oxford University Press: p:131
^ Karen Emmorey; Harlan L. Lane (2000). The signs of language revisited: an anthology to honor Ursula Bellugi and Edward Klima. Psychology Press. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-8058-3246-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=Zqq2PUsAGuIC&pg=PA20. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
Campbell, Lyle. (1998). Historical linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0262532670.
Embleton, Sheila (1995). Review of ‘An Indo-European classification: A lexicostatistical experiment’ by I. Dyen; J.B. Kruskal & P.Black. TAPS Monograph 82-5, Philadelphia. inDiachronica 12-2/1992:263–68.
Gudschinsky, Sarah. (1956). The ABC's of lexicostatistics (glottochronology). Word,12, 175–210.
Hoijer, Harry. (1956). Lexicostatistics: A critique. Language, 32, 49–60.
Holm, Hans J. (2007). The new Arboretum of Indo-European "Trees". Can New Algorithms Reveal the Phylogeny and Even Prehistory of Indo-European? Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, vol. 14, 167–214.
Holman, Wichmann, Brown, Velupillai, Müller, Bakker (2008). "Explorations in automated language classification". Folia Linguistica 42.2: 331–354
Sankoff, David (1970). "On the Rate of Replacement of Word-Meaning Relationships."Language 46.564–569.
Starostin (1991). Altajskaja Problema i Proisxozhdenie Japonskogo Jazyka [The Altaic Problem and the Origin of the Japanese Language]. Moscow: Nauka
Swadesh, Morris. (1950). Salish internal relationships. International Journal of American Linguistics, 16, 157–167.
Swadesh, Morris. (1952). Lexicostatistic dating of prehistoric ethnic contacts. Proceedings American Philosophical Society, 96, 452–463.
Swadesh, Morris. (1955). Towards greater accuracy in lexicostatistic dating. International Journal of American Linguistics, 21, 121–137.
Swadesh, Morris. (1971). The origin and diversification of language. Edited post mortem by Joel Sherzer. Chicago: Aldine. ISBN 202-01001-5. Contains p 283 final 100-word list!
Swadesh, Morris, et al. (1972). What is glottochronology? In M. Swadesh, Joel Sherzer (Ed.) The Origin and Diversification of Language (pp. 271–284). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0202308413.
Wittmann, Henri (1973). "The lexicostatistical classification of the French-based Creole languages." Lexicostatistics in genetic linguistics: Proceedings of the Yale conference, April 3–4, 1971, dir. Isidore Dyen, 89–99. La Haye: Mouton.[1]
[edit] Tags:Quantitative,Quantitative Linguistics, | |
| External links | |
| 2>
Look up Swadesh list in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Lexico-semantic universals: A critical overview
Rosetta project
Swadesh Lists of Brazilian Native Languages
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&oldid=476029620"
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