Photo:1
Photo:2
Photo:3
Photo:4
Photo:1 Photo:2 Photo:3 Photo:4 |
| Constitutional monarchy | |
| 3>
The century preceding Spain's Civil War was a turbulent time for the nation, which underwent many internal conflicts and revolts among the reformists and conservatives who jockeyed for control. A liberal tradition that first ascended politically with the Spanish Constitution of 1812 sought to abolish the monarchy of the old regime and to establish a more ideologically compatible state.[9] Between 1812 and the Civil War more than a century later, liberalism's reformists attempted to realign the political system in a way that would accurately reflect Spain's societal realities.
The increasing power of liberals was felt strongly between 1868 and 1874, when a popular uprising led to the overthrowing of Isabella II.[10] Her replacement, King Amadeo I, met a similar fate when he abdicated in 1873 as the monarchy faced mounting political pressure. The First Spanish Republic was soon proclaimed,[10][11] but the restoration of the Bourbons came in December 1874 while the military quelled demonstrations.[12] While universal male suffrage was introduced in 1890, the resulting elections were dominated by caciques, local political bosses.[13] Carlists – supporters of Infante Carlos and his descendants – opposed all liberal measures, while anarchism became popular among the Spanish working class to a degree not seen anywhere else in Europe.[9]
Prime Minister Miguel Primo de Rivera
In the first two decades of the 20th century, the industrial working class grew in number. There was a growing discontent amongst Basque and Catalonian people, where much of Spain's industry was based, who felt that the government failed to represent their interests.[14] Spain's socialist party, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and its associated trade union, the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT), gained support. A related anti-clericalism arose that was influenced by men such as republican Reformist Party founder Alejandro Lerroux, who argued that the church was inseparable from the systematic oppression felt by Spaniards.[15]
The military was keen to avoid the fracture of the state, and frowned upon regional nationalism. Resentment of the military and conscription grew with the disastrous Rif War,[16] and culminated in the confrontations of Tragic Week that followed on Barcelona's streets.[17] Animosity directed toward the military and government led to the establishment of the National Confederation of Labour (CNT), an anarchist trade union.[18] After the formation of Comintern in 1919, a growing fear of Communism emerged, and the ideology was repressed by the government through military means. The Socialist PSOE split, with more radical members founding the Communist Party in 1921.[19]
In 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera seized power in a military coup, and governed Spain as a military dictatorship.[20] He instituted new polices, including a sweeping programme of public works, and attempted to defend the agrarian-industrial monarchist coalition formed during the First World War.[19] His support faded,[19] but following Rivera's resignation in January 1930, there was little support for a return to the pre-1923 system, and the monarchy's backing of the military government caused it to forfeit democratic credibility.[21]
The municipal elections of April 12, 1931 were little supported in major cities, and large numbers of people assembled in the streets of Madrid. King Alfonso XIII abdicated, lest he become the cause of an ensuing "fratricidal civil war."[nb 6][22] The Second Spanish Republic was formed.[23]
[edit] Tags:Cnt,Spain,Second Spanish Republic,Carlists,Basque,Dictatorship,Revolts,Spanish Constitution Of 1812,Monarchy,Isabella Ii,Amadeo I,First Spanish Republic,Restoration Of The Bourbons,Caciques,Anarchism,Miguel Primo De Rivera,Spanish Socialist Workers' Party,Unión General De Trabajadores,Anti-clericalism,Reformist Party,Alejandro Lerroux,Rif War,Tragic Week,Comintern,Communist Party,First World War,King Alfonso Xiii, | |
| Second Republic | |
| 3>
Niceto Alcalá-Zamora in 1931.
The Second Republic had the broad support of all segments of society. Republican Niceto Alcalá-Zamora was made the Prime Minister of the republic.[24] Elections to a constituent Cortes in June 1931 returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists who formed a coalition of members with differing goals.[25] The state's financial position was poor, and an opposition composed of Catholic movements such as the Asociación Católica de Propagandistas,[nb 7][26] catastrophic monarchists including Carlists and the Renovación Española,[27] and Fascist organisations fought republican and socialist measures.[28]
Those parts of the CNT willing to cooperate with the republic were forced out while it continued to mount opposition to the government.[29] The opposition gained the support of the church [30] and military, which felt alienated by increasing regional autonomy granted by the central government, and saw governmental reforms aimed at boosting army efficiency as a direct attack. The General Military Academy in Saragossa, directed by Francisco Franco, was closed by Minister of War Manuel Azaña.[31]
On December 9, 1931, a new constitution, the Spanish Constitution of 1931, was declared.[32] The document was reformist, liberal and democratic in nature, and welcomed by the Republican-Socialist coalition. It appalled landowners, industrialists, the organised church, and army officers.[32] The 1931 constitution removed any special Catholic rights, as the new government believed it was necessary to break the control the church had over Spanish affairs.[32]
On 18 October 1931, Gil Robles the leading spokesman of the parliamentary opposition, called for a crusade against the republic.[33] In October, both Alcalá Zamora and his interior minister, Miguel Maura, resigned, and Manuel Azaña became Prime Minister. Reformist Party founder Alejandro Lerroux, who had sought Azaña's position, felt alienated and led his Radicals to join the opposition,[34] leaving the Prime Minister dependent only on the socialists.[35]
By the end of 1931, King Alfonso, in exile, ceased attempting to prevent an armed insurrection of monarchists in Spain.[36] Azaña declared that Spain had 'ceased to be Catholic'; although statistically justifiable,[nb 8] his remarks were politically unwise.[37] Spanish Catholics enlisted in the opposition.[34]
Foreshadowing the conflict: Salvador DalÃ's Soft Construction with Boiled Beans (Premonition of Civil War) (1936)
In August 1932, an unsuccessful uprising by General José Sanjurjo quickly disintegrated,[38] and while Socialists stood by Azaña, the left as a whole fractured, while the right coalesced.[39] Gil Robles set up a new party, the tacitly Fascist Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (Spanish: Confederatión Espanola de Derechas Autónomas, CEDA) to contest the 1933 election. The poll resulted in an overwhelming victory for the right, with the CEDA and Radicals together winning 219 seats,[nb 9] and outspending the Socialists, who campaigned alone.[40]
Beginning in 1934, Spain entered a period deemed the "black two years"[41] due to the rising tension and violence before the start of the war. Radicals became more aggressive, and conservatives turned to paramilitary and vigilante actions. The Socialist opposition began to propagate a revolutionary ideal.[42] President Niceto Alcalá-Zamora declined to invite the leader of the CEDA, Gil Robles, to form a government and instead invited the Radical Republican Party's Lerroux to do so.[42] The government set about removing price controls, selling state favours and monopolies, and removing the land reforms, which resulted in growing malnourishment in the south of Spain.[43] The agrarian reforms went largely unenforced.[44]
The first anarchist protests came on 8 December 1933, and were crushed by force easily in most of Spain.[45] Both Carlists and Alfonsist monarchists prepared for fighting, the former undergoing military drills in Navarre.[44][46] Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities.[47] Lerroux resigned in April 1934.[48] Parts of the Socialist Party attempted to prevent the move towards Bolshevism they saw in the movement, leading to ruptures within the party's structure.[49]
In September, Gil Robles' CEDA announced it would no longer support the Radicals' minority government; it was replaced by a Radical Party cabinet that included three members of his CEDA.[50] A mostly unsuccessful[51] UGT Socialist worker strike was followed by months of retaliation, repression and torture of political prisoners.[52] Robles once again prompted a cabinet collapse, and five members of Lerroux's new government were conceded to CEDA. Farm workers' wages were halved, and the military was purged of Republican members and reformed; those loyal to Robles were promoted – Francisco Franco was made Chief of Staff.[53]
In 1935, Azaña and Indalecio Prieto started to unify the left, staging large, popular rallies, in what would become the Popular Front.[53] Lerroux's Radical government collapsed after two large scandals, including the Straperlo affair. However, Zamora did not allow the CEDA to form a government, and called elections, which were narrowly won by the under-financed Popular Front. Figures on the right began planning to overthrow the republic.[54] The republicans were left to govern alone; Azaña led a minority government.[55] Acts of violence and reprisals spiralled,[56] and in April parliament replaced Zamora with Azaña by appealing to a constitutional technicality.[57]
CEDA turned its campaign chest over to Emilio Mola, whose organizational skills made him a formidable planner. The Fascist Falange expanded massively. Prieto did his best to avoid revolution,[58] but Communists quickly took over the ranks of socialist organisations,[58] which scared the middle classes.[59] Several generals determined that the government had to be replaced if the dissolution of Spain was to be prevented. Their actions would lead to the military coup that started the Spanish Civil War.
[edit] Tags:Manuel Azaña,Indalecio Prieto,Francisco Franco,José Sanjurjo,Spanish Confederation Of The Autonomous Right,Fascist,Falange, | |
| Preparations | |
| 3>
The republican government had been attempting to remove suspect generals from their posts, and so Franco was sacked as chief of staff and transferred to command of the Canary islands.[60] Goded was sacked as Inspector General and made general of the Balearic islands; Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of Africa to be military commander of Pamplona in Navarre.[60] However, this allowed Mola to direct the mainland uprising. General José Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation, and helped to come to an agreement with the Carlists.[60] Mola was chief planner and second in command.[61] José Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in prison in mid-March in order to restrict the Falange.[60] However, government actions were not as thorough as they might have been: warnings by the Director of Security and other figures were not acted upon.[62]
On 12 June, Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yagüe, but Yagüe managed to convince Casares of his loyalty to the Republic.[63] Mola began serious planning in the spring.[61] Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Socialist uprising of 1934.[61] He was well respected in the Army of Africa, Spain's toughest military force.[64] He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June, suggesting that the military was disloyal, but could be restrained if he were put in charge; Casares did nothing, failing to arrest or buy off Franco.[64] On July 5, an aircraft was chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco.[65] It arrived on July 14.[65]
On 12 July 1936, in Madrid, members of the Falange murdered Lieutenant José Castillo of the Assault Guards police force.[65] Castillo was a member of the Socialist party. The next day, members of the Assault Guards arrested José Calvo Sotelo, a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative.[66] Calvo Sotelo was shot by the Guards without trial.[66] The killing of Sotelo, a prominent member of Parliament, with involvement of the police, aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government's opponents on the right.[67][nb 10] Massive reprisals followed.[66] Although the conservative Nationalist generals were already in advanced stages of a planned uprising, the event provided a catalyst and convenient public justification for their coup.[66] The Socialists and Communists (led by Prieto) demanded that arms be distributed to the people, before the military took over. The Prime Minister was hesitant.[66] Franco's plane landed in Gran Canaria on July 14.
[edit] Tags:Canary Islands,Balearic Islands,Army Of Africa, | |
z³ote monety |