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| Geography | |
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Main article: Geography of South America
A composite relief image of South America
South America occupies the southern portion of the American landmass. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Some sources[citation needed] instead suggest the Panama Canal. Geopolitically and geographically[4] all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is typically included in North America alone[5][6][7] and among the countries of Central America.[8][9] Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate. South America's triangular shape gives it the shortest coastline, for its size, of any of the continents.
Traditionally South America also includes some nearby islands. Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Trinidad, Tobago, and the federal dependencies of Venezuela sit on the northerly South American continental shelf and are often considered part of the continent. Geo-politically, the island states and overseas territories of the Caribbean are generally grouped as a part or subregion of North America, since they are more distant on the Caribbean Plate, even though San Andreas and Providencia are politically part of Colombia and Aves Island is controlled by Venezuela.[7][10][11] Other islands that are included with South America are the Galápagos islands that belong to Ecuador and Easter Island (in Oceania but belongs to Chile), Robinson Crusoe Island, Chiloé are also Chilean islands, while Tierra del Fuego is split between that country and Argentina. In the Atlantic, Brazil owns Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martim Vaz, and the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, while the Falkland Islands are governed by the United Kingdom, whose sovereignty over the islands is disputed by Argentina. South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands may be associated with either South America or Antarctica.
South America is home to the world's highest waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela; the largest river (by volume), the Amazon River; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at 6,962 m [22,841 ft]); the driest place on earth, the Atacama Desert;[12][13][14] the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest; the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro, Chile.
The Andes are the world's longest continental mountain range.
South America's major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in the international markets has led historically to major highs and lows in the economies of South American states, often causing extreme political instability. This is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export.
South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth. South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a major proportion of the Earth's species.
Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the continent's land area and population. The remaining countries and territories are divided among three regions: The Andean States, the Guianas and the Southern Cone.
[edit] Tags:American,Continent,North America,Argentina,Bolivia,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,Ecuador,Venezuela,Area,Population,Landmass,Darién Watershed,Panama,Panama Canal,Geopolitically,Countries Of Central America,Aruba,Bonaire,Curaçao,Trinidad,Tobago,Federal Dependencies Of Venezuela,Continental Shelf,Caribbean Plate,San Andreas,Providencia,Aves Island,Galápagos Islands,Easter Island,Oceania,Robinson Crusoe Island,Chiloé,Tierra Del Fuego,Fernando De Noronha,Trindade And Martim Vaz,Saint Peter And Saint Paul Archipelago,Falkland Islands,United Kingdom,Disputed By Argentina,South Georgia And The South Sandwich Islands,Antarctica,Waterfall,Angel Falls,Amazon River,Andes,Atacama Desert,Amazon Rainforest,La Paz, Bolivia,Lake Titicaca,Puerto Toro, Chile,Mountain Range,Gold,Silver,Copper,Iron Ore,Tin,Petroleum,Commodity,Llama,Anaconda,Piranha,Jaguar,Vicuña,Tapir,Biodiversity,Species,Andean States,The Guianas,Southern Cone, | |
| Prehistory | |
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The prehistoric Cueva de las Manos, or Cave of the Hands, in Argentina
South America was joined with Africa from the late Paleozoic Era to the early Mesozoic Era, until the supercontinent Pangaea began to rift and break apart about 225 million years ago. Therefore, South America and Africa share similar fossils and rock layers.
South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing the Bering Land Bridge (now the Bering Strait) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually reached South America through the Isthmus of Panama. Some archaeological finds do not fit this theory and have led to an alternative theory of pre-Siberian American aborigines.
The first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to about 9000 BC, when squashes, chillies and beans began to be cultivated for food in the highlands of the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence further suggests that manioc, which remains a staple food today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BC.[15]
By 2000 BC, many agrarian village communities had been settled throughout the Andes and the surrounding religious regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society.[15]
South American cultures began domesticating llamas, vicuñas, guanacos, and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods.[15]
[edit] Tags:Africa,Cueva De Las Manos,Paleozoic Era,Mesozoic Era,Supercontinent,Pangaea,Bering Land Bridge,Bering Strait,Russia,Isthmus Of Panama,Theory,Squashes,Chillies,Beans,Amazon Basin,Manioc,Staple Food,Agrarian,Agrarian Society,Llamas,Vicuñas,Guanacos,Alpacas,Irrigation, | |
| Pre-Columbian civilizations | |
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Main article: Pre-Columbian_era#South_America
The Inca ruins of Machu Picchu, Peru
The rise of plant growing and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America.
The earliest known settlements, and culture in South America and America altogether, are the Valdivia on the Southwest coast of Ecuador.
One of the earliest known South American civilizations was at Norte Chico, on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Norte Chico is contemporaneous with the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. Norte Chico governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed by ChavÃn by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called ChavÃn de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. ChavÃn civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.
In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the I millennium AD, Moche (100 BC – 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru), Paracas and Nazca (400 BC – 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture through irrigation and new styles of ceramic art. At the Altiplano, Tiahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC – 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion.
Around 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari or Huari Empire (600 – 1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and tiahuanaco religious iconography.
The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in what is now modern Colombia. They established a confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos, that had a free trade network among themselves. They were goldsmiths and farmers.
Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: ; the Cañaris (in south central Ecuador), Chimu Empire (1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast), Chachapoyas, and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Bolivia and southern Peru).
Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu, and "the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer road system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture.
The Mapuche in Central Chile resisted the European and Chilean settles, waging the Arauco War for more than 300 years.
[edit] Tags:Quechua,Aymara,Peru,Europe,Machu Picchu,Valdivia,Norte Chico,Peruvian,Ancient Egypt,ChavÃn,ChavÃn De Huantar, | |
| European colonization | |
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Main articles: Spanish colonization of the Americas and Portuguese colonization of the Americas
A representation of a Mestizo, in a "Pintura de Castas" in the Colonial era. "From Spaniard and Amerindian woman, begets Mestizo".
In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries.
The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian.
Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies.
European infectious diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus)—to which the native populations had no immune resistance—and systems of forced labor, such as the haciendas and mining industry's mita, decimated the native population under Spanish control. After this, African slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them.
The Spaniards were committed to convert their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism with traditional idolatry and their polytheistic beliefs. Furthermore, the Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the Roman Catholic Church's evangelization in Quechua, Aymara, and Guaranà actually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form.
Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a mestizo class. At the beginning, the mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and white or mestizo mothers.
Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered, conquered or found. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American.
Guyana was a Portuguese, Dutch, and eventually a British colony. The country was once partitioned into three parts, each being controlled by one of the colonial powers until the country was finally taken over fully by the British.
[edit] Tags:Spanish,Portuguese,Dutch,Americas,Guyana,India,New World, | |
| Independence | |
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Main articles: Spanish American wars of independence and Brazilian Declaration of Independence
Guayaquil conference, between José de San MartÃn and Simón BolÃvar.
The European Peninsular War, a theater of the Napoleonic Wars, changed the political situation of both the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but the House of Braganza avoided capture by escaping to Brazil. Napoleon captured as well the Spanish king, Ferdinand VII of Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment found severe popular resistance in the country, which created Juntas to rule in the name of the captured king.
Many cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas than those of Spain. This began the Spanish American wars of independence, between the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and the royalists, who though that the Spanish cities still maintained authority over the Americas. The Juntas, at both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. Five years after the begin of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began the Absolutist Restauration, as the royalists got the upper hand in the conflict.
The independence of South America was secured by Simón BolÃvar (Venezuela) and José de San MartÃn (Argentina), the two most important Libertadores. BolÃvar led a great uprising in northern South America, then led his army southward towards Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Meanwhile, San MartÃn led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized a fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. The two armies finally met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where they cornered the Royal Army of the Spanish Crown and forced its surrender.
In the Portuguese colony of Brazil, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese King Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822. The country maintained a monarchical government, becoming the Empire of Brazil. After some quarreling with Portuguese loyal garrisons in Bahia and Pará, this was diplomatically accepted by the crown in Portugal, on conditions of a high compensation paid by Brazil.
The new independent nations began a process of Balkanization and several civil wars and wars with the neighbour countries. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern day (as Paraguay or Uruguay), and others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (as the Republic of Entre RÃos or the Riograndense Republic).
[edit] Tags:Lima,Guayaquil,Paraguay,Uruguay, | |
| Recent history | |
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The Brazilian Minas Geraes class kindled an Argentine–Brazilian–Chilean naval arms race
Early in the 20th century, the three largest South American countries engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race which was catalyzed by the introduction of a new warship type, the "dreadnought". At one point, the Argentine government was spending a fifth of their entire yearly budget for just two dreadnoughts, a price that did not include later in-service costs, which for the Brazilian dreadnoughts was sixty percent of the initial purchase.[16][17]
The continent became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed on inter-state collaboration. Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the U.S. Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict.
Argentina and Britain fought the Falklands war in 1982.
Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation of Marxist guerrillas (FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced FARC. These leftist groups smuggle narcotics out of Colombia to fund their operations, while also using kidnapping, bombings, land mines and assassinations as weapons against both elected and non-elected citizens.
Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.[18] Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, in most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued this far.
Presidents of UNASUR member states at the Second BrasÃlia Summit on 23 May 2008.
International indebtedness turned into a severe problem in late 1980s, and some countries, despite having strong democracies, have not yet developed political institutions capable of handling such crises without recurring to unorthodox economical policies, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century.[19] The last twenty years have seen an increased push towards regional integration, with the creation of uniquely South American institutions such as the Andean Community, Mercosur and Unasur. Notably, starting with the election of Hugo Chavez in Venezuela in 1998, the region experienced what has been termed a pink tide - the election of several leftist and center-left administrations to most countries of the area, except for the Guianas, Peru and Colombia.
[edit] Tags:BrasÃlia, | |
| Politics | |
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Union of South American Nations member states
During the first decade of the 21st century, South American governments have drifted to the political left, with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Despite the move to the left, South America for the most part still embraces free market policies, and it is taking an active path toward greater continental integration.
Recently, an intergovernmental entity has been formed which aims to merge the two existing customs unions: Mercosur and the Andean Community, thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world.[20] This new political organization known as Union of South American Nations seeks to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination of tariffs.
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| Ethnic demographics | |
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Descendants of Indigenous peoples, such as the Quechua and Aymara, or the Urarina[21] of Amazonia make up the majority of the population in Bolivia (56%) and, per some sources, in Peru (44%).[22][23] In Ecuador, Amerindians are a large minority that comprises two-fifths of the population. The white/European population is also a significant element in most other former Portuguese colonies.
The demographics of Venezuela and Colombia include approximately 20% white and European descendants,[24] while in Peru, European descendants are the third group in importance (15%).[25] Compared to other South American countries, the people of European descent are more of a majority in Argentina,[26] Chile,[27][28] and Uruguay,[29] and are about half of the population of Brazil.[30][31][32]
South America is also home to one of the largest populations of Africans. This group is also significantly present in Guyana, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana, and Ecuador.[33] Mestizos (mixed white and Amerindian) are the largest ethnic group in Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador and the second group in Peru. East Indians form the largest ethnic group in Guyana. Brazil followed by Peru also have the biggest Japanese, Korean and Chinese communities in South America.[34]
Brazil is the most diverse country in South America and arguably the world, with large population of Whites, Mulattos, Mestizos, a significant population of Blacks, as well as a sizeable community of Middle Easterners and East Asians.
Country or
territory with flag
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