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| Etymology | |
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The term "class" is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth, in order to determine military service obligations.[3]
In the late 19th century, the term "class" began to replace hereditary classifications (such as estates, rank, and orders) as the primary means of organizing society into hierarchical divisions. This corresponded to a general decrease in significance ascribed to hereditary characteristics, and increase in the significance of wealth and income as indicators of position in the social hierarchy.[4][5]
[edit] Tags:Hierarchical,Census,State, | |
| Theoretical models | |
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Definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology, and sociology. The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and Functionalism. The common stratum model of class divides society into a simple hierarchy of working class, middle class and upper class. Within academia, two broad schools of definitions emerge: those aligned with 20th-century sociological stratum models of class society, and those aligned with the 19th-century historical materialist economic models of the Marxists and anarchists.[6][7][8]
Another distinction can be drawn between analytical concepts of social class, such as the Marxist and Weberian traditions, and the more empirical traditions such as socio-economic status approach, which notes the correlation of income, education and wealth with social outcomes without necessarily implying a particular theory of social structure.[9]
[edit] Tags:Sociology,Education,Socio-economic,Sociological Perspectives,Anthropology,Economics,Psychology,Marxism,Functionalism,Working Class,Middle Class,Upper Class,Historical Materialist,Marxists,Anarchists, | |
| Marxist | |
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Main article: Class in Marxist theory
"[Classes are] large groups of people differing from each other by the place they occupy in a historically determined system of social production, by their relation (in most cases fixed and formulated in law) to the means of production, by their role in the social organization of labor, and, consequently, by the dimensions of the share of social wealth of which they dispose and the mode of acquiring it."
Vladimir Lenin, A Great Beginning - June, 1919
For Marx, class has three primary facets:[10]
Objective factors: A class shares a common relationship to the means of production.
Subjective factors: The members will necessarily have some perception ("class consciousness") of their similarity and common interest. Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of one's own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically.
Reproduction of class relations: Class is a set of social relationships that is reproduced from one generation to the next.
In Marxist theory, the capitalist stage of production consists of two main classes: the bourgeoisie, the capitalists who own the means of production, and the much larger proletariat (or 'working class') who must sell their own labour power (See also: wage labour). This is the fundamental economic structure of work and property (See also: wage labour), a state of inequality that is normalised and reproduced through cultural ideology.
Marxists explain the history of "civilized" societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society. In the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and wage-workers (the proletariat). For Marxists, class antagonism is rooted in the situation that control over social production necessarily entails control over the class which produces goods—in capitalism this is the exploitation of workers by the bourgeoisie.[citation needed]
Marx himself argued that it was the goal of the proletariat itself to displace the capitalist system with socialism, changing the social relationships underpinning the class system and then developing into a future communist society in which: "..the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all." (Communist Manifesto) This would mark the beginning of a classless society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class, no state and no need for money.[citation needed]
[edit] Tags:History,Lists,Relationship,Means Of Production,Class Consciousness,Marxist Theory,Capitalist,Bourgeoisie,Proletariat,Wage Labour,Fundamental Economic Structure Of Work And Property,Reproduced Through Cultural Ideology,War Of Classes,Capitalism,Wage-workers,Exploitation,Socialism,Communist,Communist Manifesto,Capital,Wage, | |
| Weberian | |
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Main article: Three-component theory of stratification
Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, that saw political power as an interplay between "class", "status" and "group power". Weber believed that class position was determined by a person's skills and education, rather than by their relationship to the means of production. Both Marx and Weber agreed that social stratification was undesirable, however where Marx believed that stratification would only disappear along with capitalism and private property, Weber believed that the solution lay in providing "equal opportunity" within a competitive, capitalist system.[11][12]
Weber derived many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the social structure of Germany. He noted that contrary to Marx's theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership of capital. Weber examined how many members of the aristocracy lacked economic wealth yet had strong political power. Many wealthy families lacked prestige and power, for example, because they were Jewish. Weber introduced three independent factors that form his theory of stratification hierarchy; class, status, and power[13]:
Class: A person's economic position in a society. Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber noted how managers of corporations or industries control firms they do not own; Marx would have placed such a person in the proletariat.
Status: A person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society. Weber noted that political power was not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's individual status. Poets or saints, for example, can possess immense influence on society with often little economic worth.
Power: A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others. For example, individuals in state jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United States Congress, may hold little property or status but they still hold immense power.
[edit] Tags:Stratification,Social Stratification,Three-component Theory Of Stratification,Max Weber,Political Power,Private Property,Germany,Jewish,Federal Bureau Of Investigation,United States Congress,Managers,Wealthy, | |
| The common three-stratum model | |
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Today, concepts of social class often assume three general categories: a very wealthy and powerful upper class that owns and controls the means of production; a middle class of professional workers, small business owners, and low-level managers; and a lower class, who rely on low-paying wage jobs for their livelihood and often experience poverty.
[edit] Tags:Small Business,Poverty,Lower Class, | |
| Upper class | |
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Members of the upper class generally wield much greater political power than members of the lower or middle class. Pictured here are U.S. President George W. Bush and World Bank President James Wolfensohn.
Main article: Upper class
See also: Elite, Aristocracy, and Oligarchy
The upper class[14] is the social class composed of those who are wealthy, well-born, or both. They usually wield the greatest political power. In some countries, wealth alone is sufficient to allow entry into the upper class. In others, only people born into certain aristocratic bloodlines are considered members of the upper class, and those who gain great wealth through commercial activity are looked down upon as nouveau riche. The upper class is generally contained within the wealthiest 1 or 2 percent of the population. Members of the upper class are often born into it, and are distinguished by immense wealth which is passed from generation to generation in the form of estates.[15] Sometimes members of the upper class are called "the one percent".
[edit] Tags:George W. Bush,World Bank,James Wolfensohn,Elite,Oligarchy, | |
| Middle class | |
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Main article: Middle class
The middle class are the most contested of the three categorizations, the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socio-economically between the lower class and upper class.[16] One example of the contestation of this term is that In the United States "middle class" is applied very broadly and includes people who would elsewhere be considered lower class. Middle class workers are sometimes called "white-collar workers".
Theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf have noted the tendency toward an enlarged middle class in modern Western societies, particularly in relation to the necessity of an educated work force in technological economies.[17] Perspectives concerning globalization and neocolonialism, such as dependency theory, suggest this is due to the shift of low-level labour to developing nations and the Third World.[18]
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| Lower class | |
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Working class people often live in decaying, crime-ridden urban areas with low-quality civil services.
Main article: Working class
Lower class (occasionally described as working class) are those employed in low-paying wage jobs with very little economic security.
The working class is sometimes separated into those who are employed but lacking financial security, and an underclass—those who are long-term unemployed and/or homeless, especially those receiving welfare from the state. The latter is analogous to the Marxist term "lumpenproletariat".[14] Members of the working class are sometimes called blue-collar workers.
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| Consequences of class position | |
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A person's socioeconomic class has wide-ranging effects. It may determine the schools they are able to attend, the jobs open to them, who they may marry, and their treatment by police and the courts.[citation needed]
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| Education | |
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A person's social class has a significant impact on their educational opportunities. Not only are upper-class parents able to send their children to exclusive schools that are perceived to be better, but in many places state-supported schools for children of the upper class are of a much higher quality than those the state provides for children of the lower classes.[19][20][21][22][23][24] This lack of good schools is one factor that perpetuates the class divide across generations.
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| Health and nutrition | |
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A person's social class has a significant impact on their physical health, their ability to receive adequate medical care and nutrition, and their life expectancy.[25][26][27]
Lower-class people experience a wide array of health problems as a result of their economic status. They are unable to use health care as often, and when they do it is of lower quality, even though they generally tend to experience a much higher rate of health issues. Lower-class families have higher rates of infant mortality, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and disabling physical injuries. Additionally, poor people tend to work in much more hazardous conditions, yet generally have much less (if any) health insurance provided for them, as compared to middle and upper class workers.[28]
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| Employment | |
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The conditions at a person's job vary greatly depending on class. Those in the upper-middle class and middle class enjoy greater freedoms in their occupations. They are usually more respected, enjoy more diversity, and are able to exhibit some authority. Those in lower classes tend to feel more alienated and have lower work satisfaction overall. The physical conditions of the workplace differ greatly between classes. While middle-class workers may "suffer alienating conditions" or "lack of job satisfaction", blue-collar workers are more apt to suffer alienating, often routine, work with obvious physical health hazards, injury, and even death.[29]
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| Police and the courts | |
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Proletarians, and especially people with low socio-economic status, are much more likely to be beaten or detained by the police. They are additionally much less likely to receive a fair trial, and are imprisoned more often than the bourgeoisie or people with high socio-economic status.
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| Class conflict | |
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This section requires expansion.
Main article: Class conflict
For Marx, the history of class society was a history of class conflict. He pointed to the successful rise of the bourgeoisie, and the necessity of revolutionary violence—a heightened form of class conflict—in securing the bourgeoisie rights that supported the capitalist economy.
Marx believed that the exploitation and poverty inherent in capitalism were a pre-existing form of class conflict. Marx believed that wage labourers would need to revolt to bring about a more equitable distribution of wealth and political power.[30][31]
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| Relationship between race and class | |
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Main article: Racial inequality
Race and other large-scale groupings can also influence class standing. The association of particular ethnic groups with class statuses is common in many societies. As a result of conquest or internal ethnic differentiation, a ruling class is often ethnically homogenous and particular races or ethnic groups in some societies are legally or customarily restricted to occupying particular class positions. Which ethnicities are considered as belonging to high or low classes varies from society to society. In modern societies strict legal links between ethnicity and class have been drawn, such as in apartheid, the caste system in Africa, and in the position of the Burakumin in Japanese society.[citation needed]
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| See also | |
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Caste
Chattering classes
Class conflict
Class consciousness
Classless society
Drift Hypothesis
Elite theory
Elitism
Gilbert Model
Health and Social Class
Mass society
National Statistics Socio-economic Classification (NS-SEC)
Passing
Poverty
Ranked society
Raznochinets
Second-class citizen
Social exclusion
Social mobility
Social position
Social status
Social stratification
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| Class by region or historical period | |
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Class in Aztec society
Class in the contemporary United States
Four divisions of society
Inca society
Indian caste system
Korean ruling class
Social class in ancient Rome
Social structure of Britain
Social class in Italy
Social structure of China
Social class in New Zealand
Poverty in the United States
Social class in American history
Social structure of the United States
[edit] Tags: | |
| References | |
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^ Grant, J. Andrew (2001). "class, definition of". In Jones, R.J. Barry. Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries A-F. Taylor & Francis. p. 161. ISBN 9780415243506. http://books.google.com/books?id=a29qBofx8Y8C&pg=PA161.
^ Princeton University. "Social class." WordNet Search 3.1. Retrieved on: 2012-01-25.
^ Brown, D.F. (2009). "Social class and Status". In Mey, Jacob. Concise Encyclopedia of Pragmatics. Elsevier. p. 952. ISBN 9780080962979. http://books.google.com/books?id=GcmXgeBE7k0C&pg=PA952.
^ Kuper, Adam, ed (2004). "Class, Social". The social science encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 111. ISBN 9780415320962. http://books.google.com/books?id=2oES3pJufP4C&pg=PA111.
^ Penney, Robert (2003). "Class, social". In Christensen, Karen & Levinson, David. Encyclopedia of community: from the village to the virtual world, Volume 1. SAGE. p. 189. ISBN 9780761925989. http://books.google.com/books?id=t1geOjQ6R0MC&pg=PA189.
^ Parrillo, Vincent N., ed (2008). "Class". Encyclopedia of social problems, Volume 1. SAGE. p. 131. ISBN 9781412941655. http://books.google.com/books?id=mRGr_B4Y1CEC&pg=PA131.
^ Gilbert, Dennis (1998). The American Class Structure. New York: Wadsworth Publishing. 0-534-50520-1.
^ Williams, Brian; Stacey C. Sawyer, Carl M. Wahlstrom (2005). Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships. Boston, MA: Pearson. 0-205-36674-0.
^ John Scott, Class: critical concepts (1996) Volume 2 P. 310
^ Hanagan, Michael P. (1994). "Class". In Stearns, Peter N.. Encyclopedia of social history. Taylor & Francis. p. 184. ISBN 9780815303428. http://books.google.com/books?id=kkIeyCEedrsC&pg=PA184.
^ Jones, Helen (1997). Towards a classless society?. Psychology Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780415153317. http://books.google.com/books?id=P6T5j2ywnqQC&pg=4.
^ Leander, Anna (2001). "class, Weberian approaches to". In Jones, R.J. Barry. Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries A-F. Taylor & Francis. p. 227. ISBN 9780415243506. http://books.google.com/books?id=LT7r94epBz0C&pg=PA227.
^ Stark, Rodney (2007). Sociology (Tenth edition ed.). Thompson Wadsworth.
^ a b Brown, D.F. (2009). "Social class and Status". In Mey, Jacob. Concise Encyclopedia of Pragmatics. Elsevier. p. 953. ISBN 9780080962979. http://books.google.com/books?id=GcmXgeBE7k0C&pg=PA953.
^ Akhbar-Williams, Tahira (2010). "Class Structure". In Smith, Jessie C.. Encyclopedia of African American Popular Culture, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 322. ISBN 9780313357961. http://books.google.com/books?id=10rEGSIItjgC&pg=PA322.
^ Stearns, Peter N., ed (1994). "Middle class". Encyclopedia of social history. Taylor & Francis. p. 621. ISBN 9780815303428. http://books.google.com/books?id=kkIeyCEedrsC&pg=PA621.
^ Dahrendorf, Ralf. (1959) Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
^ Bornschier V. (1996), 'Western society in transition' New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.
^ Jonathan Kozol, Savage Inequalities, Crown, 1991
^ McDonough, Patricia M. (1997). Choosing colleges: how social class and schools structure opportunity. SUNY Press. pp. 1-2. ISBN 9780791434772. http://books.google.com/books?id=PHdy8ql2mM4C&pg=PA1.
^ Shin, Kwang-Yeong & Lee, Byoung-Hoon (2010). "Social class and educational opportunity in South Korea". In Attewell, Paul & Newman, Katherine S.. Growing gaps: educational inequality around the world. Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780199732180. http://books.google.com/books?id=tqf8ShfYk_YC&pg=PA105.
^ McNamee, Stephen J. & Miller, Robert K. (2009). The meritocracy myth. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 199. ISBN 9780742561687. http://books.google.com/books?id=6szZEsV-dDEC&pg=PA199.
^ Thomas, Scott L. & Bell, Angela (2007). "Social class and higher education: a reorganization of opportunities". In Weis, Lois. The Way Class Works: Readings on School, Family, and the Economy. Taylor & Francis. p. 273. ISBN 9780415957076. http://books.google.com/books?id=sj1HCJaRkHMC&pg=PA273.
^ Sacks, Peter (2007). Tearing down the gates: confronting the class divide in American education. University of California Press. pp. 112-114. ISBN 9780520245884. http://books.google.com/books?id=EE-m0ZwjuqsC&pg=PA112.
^ Barr, Donald A. (2008). Health disparities in the United States: social class, race, ethnicity, and health. JHU Press. pp. 1-2. ISBN 9780801888212. http://books.google.com/books?id=US21MlGw3-IC&pg=PA1.
^ Gulliford, Martin (2003). "Equity and access to health care". In Gulliford, Martin & Morgan, Myfanwy. Access to health care. Psychology Press. p. 39. ISBN 9780415275460. http://books.google.com/books?id=mOXP05u5alAC&pg=PA39.
^ Budrys, Grace (2009). Unequal Health: How Inequality Contributes to Health Or Illness. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 183-184. ISBN 9780742565074. http://books.google.com/books?id=kUSM_kCNsSAC&pg=PA183.
^ Liu, William Ming (2010). Social Class and Classism in the Helping Professions: Research, Theory, and Practice. SAGE. p. 29. ISBN 9781412972512. http://books.google.com/books?id=4IbVbxXisUgC&pg=PA29.
^ Kerbo, Herald (1996). Social Stratification and Inequality. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.. pp. 231–233. ISBN 0-07-034258-X. Tags:Culture,Family,Science, | |
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