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| Economic conditions and intellectual climate | |
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See also: History of capitalism and Medieval university
Medieval university class (1350s)
The rapid economic and socio-cultural development of late medieval society in Europe created favorable intellectual and technological conditions for Gutenberg's invention: the entrepreneurial spirit of emerging capitalism increasingly made its impact on medieval modes of production, fostering economic thinking and improving the efficiency of traditional work-processes. The sharp rise of medieval learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating.[12]
[edit] Tags:Hand-copying,Literacy,Middle Class,Medieval University,Late Medieval Society,Emerging Capitalism,Medieval Learning,Tin,Ink,Book,Gutenberg, | |
| Technological factors | |
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See also: History of Western typography and Medieval technology
At the same time, a number of medieval products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. Gutenberg took up these far-flung strands, combined them into one complete and functioning system, and perfected the printing process through all its stages by adding a number of inventions and innovations of his own:
Early modern wine press. Such screw presses were applied in Europe to a wide range of uses and provided Gutenberg with the model for his printing press.
The screw press which allowed direct pressure to be applied on flat-plane was already of great antiquity in Gutenberg's time and was used for a wide range of tasks.[13] Introduced in the 1st century AD by the Romans, it was commonly employed in agricultural production for pressing wine grapes and (olive) oil fruit, both of which formed an integral part of the mediterranean and medieval diet.[14] The device was also used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns.[15] Gutenberg may have also been inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century and which worked on the same mechanical principles.[16]
Gutenberg adopted the basic design, thereby mechanizing the printing process.[17] Printing, however, put a demand on the machine quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the pressing power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the printing process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed.[18]
Movable type sorted in a letter case and loaded in a composing stick on top
The concept of movable type was not entirely new in the 15th century; sporadic evidence that the typographical principle, the idea of creating a text by reusing individual characters, was well understood and employed in pre-Gutenberg Europe had been cropping up since the 12th century and possibly before. The known examples range from Germany (Prüfening inscription) to England (letter tiles) to Italy.[19] However, the various techniques employed (imprinting, punching and assembling individual letters) did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted.
Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps. A goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today.[20] The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a special hand mould, the matrix.[21] The Latin alphabet proved to be an enormous advantage in the process because, in contrast to logographic writing systems, it allowed the type-setter to represent any text with a theoretical minimum of only around two dozen different letters.[22]
Another factor conducive to printing arose from the book existing in the format of the codex, which had originated in the Roman period.[23] Considered the most important advance in the history of the book prior to printing itself, the codex had completely replaced the ancient scroll at the onset of the Middle Ages (500 AD).[24] The codex holds considerable practical advantages over the scroll format; it is more convenient to read (by turning pages), is more compact, less costly, and, in particular, unlike the scroll, both recto and verso could be used for writing − and printing.[25]
A paper codex of the acclaimed 42-line Bible, Gutenberg's major work
A fourth development was the early success of medieval papermakers at mechanizing paper manufacture. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which dates to 1282,[26] allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both Chinese[27] and Muslim papermaking.[28] Papermaking centres began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further; papermaking centers reached Germany a century later.[29]
Despite this it appears that the final breakthrough of paper depended just as much on the rapid spread of movable-type printing.[30] It is notable that codices of parchment, which in terms of quality is superior to any other writing material,[31] still had a substantial share in Gutenberg's edition of the 42-line Bible.[32] After much experimentation, Gutenberg managed to overcome the difficulties which traditional water-based inks caused by soaking the paper, and found the formula for an oil-based ink suitable for high-quality printing with metal type.[33]
[edit] Tags:Movable Type,Print,German,Screw Presses,Goldsmith,Hand Mould,Germany,Press,42-line Bible,Latin,Medieval Technology,Wine Press,Screw Press,Romans,Wine Grapes,Olive,Cloth,Paper,German Lands,Platen,Letter Case,Composing Stick,Typographical Principle,Prüfening Inscription,Letter Tiles,Typesetting,Printing,Lead,Alloy,Matrix,Latin Alphabet,Logographic Writing Systems,Letters,Codex,Roman Period,Ancient,Scroll,Recto And Verso,Paper Mills,Parchment,Forme, | |
| How a printing press works | |
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This woodcut from 1568 shows the left printer removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks. Such a duo could reach 14,000 hand movements per working day, printing around 3,600 pages in the process.[4]
A printing press, in its classical form, is a standing mechanism, ranging from 5 to 7 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 7 feet tall. Type arranged into pages is placed in a frame to make a forme, which itself is placed onto a flat stone or 'bed'. The type is inked, and the paper is held between a frisket and tympan (two frames covered with paper or parchment). These are folded down, so that the paper lies on the surface of the inked type. The bed is rolled under the platen, using a windlass mechanism, and the impression is made with a screw that transmits pressure through the platen. Then the screw is reversed, the windlass turned again to move the bed back to its original position, the tympan and frisket raised and opened, and the printed sheet removed. Such presses were always worked by hand. After around 1800, iron presses were developed, some of which could be operated by steam power.
[edit] Tags:Inked,Woodcut,Frisket,Tympan, | |
| Gutenberg's press | |
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See also: Letterpress printing
Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehn—a man he had previously instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill.[34] However, it was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that an official record exists; witnesses' testimony discussed Gutenberg's types, an inventory of metals (including lead), and his type molds.[34]
Having previously worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. He was the first to make type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books and proved to be much better suited for printing than all other known materials. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what is considered one of his most ingenious inventions,[34] a special matrix enabling the quick and precise molding of new type blocks from a uniform template. His type case is estimated to have contained around 290 separate letter boxes, most of which were required for special characters, ligatures, punctuation marks, etc.[35]
Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both paper and vellum (high-quality parchment).
In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg made a trial of coloured printing for a few of the page headings, present only in some copies.[36] A later work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453, presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his successors Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed initials.[37]
[edit] Tags:Johannes Gutenberg,Mainz,Letterpress Printing,Lawsuit, | |
| The Printing Revolution | |
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The phenomenon of the Printing Revolution can be approached from a quantitative perspective which has its focus on the printing output and the spread of the related technology. It can also be analysed in terms of how the wide circulation of information and ideas acted as an "agent of change" (Eisenstein) in Europe and global society in general.
[edit] Tags:Printing Revolution, | |
| Mass production and spread of printed books | |
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See also: Global spread of the printing press and List of early modern newspapers
Spread of printing in the 15th century from Mainz, Germany
The European book output rose from a few million to around one billion copies within a span of less than four centuries.[38]
The invention of mechanical movable type printing led to an explosion of printing activities in Europe within only a few decades. From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany, printing had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe by the end of the 15th century.[39] As early as 1480, there were printers active in 110 different places in Germany, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, England, Bohemia and Poland.[7] From that time on, it is assumed that "the printed book was in universal use in Europe".[7]
In Italy, a center of early printing, print shops had been established in 77 cities and towns by 1500. At the end of the following century, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, with a total of nearly three thousand printers known to be active. Despite this proliferation, printing centres soon emerged; thus, one third of the Italian printers published in Venice.[40]
By 1500, the printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million copies.[7] In the following century, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.[7]
European printing presses of around 1600 were capable of producing 3,600 impressions per workday.[4] By comparison, movable type printing in the Far East, which did not know presses and was solely done by manually rubbing the back of the paper to the page,[41] did not exceed an output of forty pages per day.[5]
The vast printing capacities meant that individual authors could now become true bestsellers: Of Erasmus's work, at least 750,000 copies were sold during his lifetime alone (1469–1536).[42] In the early days of the Reformation, the revolutionary potential of bulk printing took princes and papacy alike by surprise. In the period from 1518 to 1524, the publication of books in Germany alone skyrocketed sevenfold; between 1518 and 1520, Luther's tracts were distributed in 300,000 printed copies.[43]
The rapidity of typographical text production, as well as the sharp fall in unit costs, led to the issuing of the first newspapers (see Relation) which opened up an entirely new field for conveying up-to-date information to the public.[44]
A lasting legacy are the prized incunable, surviving pre-16th century print works which are collected by many of the most prestigious libraries in Europe and North America.[45]
[edit] Tags:Luther,Erasmus,Western Europe,Reformation, | |
| Circulation of information and ideas | |
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See also: The Gutenberg Galaxy
"Modern Book Printing" sculpture, commemorating its inventor Gutenberg on the occasion of the 2006 World Cup in Germany
The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution.[citation needed] Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author has been entirely lost.[citation needed]
Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown.[citation needed] The process of reading also changed, gradually moving over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading.[citation needed] The wider availability of printed materials also led to a drastic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe.[citation needed]
The printing press was an important step towards the democratization of knowledge.[46][47] Within fifty or sixty years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). Now that more people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Furthermore, now that book production was a more commercial enterprise, the first copyright laws[citation needed] were passed to protect what we now would call intellectual property rights[citation needed]. On the other hand, the printing press was criticized for allowing the dissemination of information which may have been incorrect.[48][49]
A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increasing the variety of published works. The printed word also helped to unify and standardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability. This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited as one of the causes of the rise of nationalism in Europe.
[edit] Tags:Gutenberg Galaxy,Democratization Of Knowledge,Nationalism, | |
| Book printing as art form | |
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For years, book printing was considered a true art form. Typesetting, or the placement of the characters on the page, including the use of ligatures, was passed down from master to apprentice. In Germany, the art of typesetting was termed the "black art," in allusion to the ink-covered printers. It has largely been replaced by computer typesetting programs, which make it easy to get similar results more quickly and with less physical labor. Some practitioners continue to print books the way Gutenberg did. For example, there is a yearly convention of traditional book printers in Mainz, Germany.
Some theorists, such as McLuhan, Eisenstein, Kittler, and Giesecke, see an "alphabetic monopoly" as having developed from printing, removing the role of the image from society. Other authors stress that printed works themselves are a visual medium. Certainly, modern developments in printing have revitalized the role of illustrations.
[edit] Tags:Art Form, | |
| Industrial printing presses | |
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Koenig's 1814 steam-powered printing press
At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the mechanics of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press were still essentially unchanged, although new materials in its construction, amongst other innovations, had gradually improved its printing efficiency. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had built a press completely from cast iron which reduced the force required by 90%, while doubling the size of the printed area.[50] With a capacity of 480 pages per hour, it doubled the output of the old style press.[51] Nonetheless, the limitations inherent to the traditional method of printing became obvious.
Two ideas altered the design of the printing press radically: First, the use of steam power for running the machinery, and second the replacement of the printing flatbed with the rotary motion of cylinders. Both elements were for the first time successfully implemented by the German printer Friedrich Koenig in a series of press designs devised between 1802 and 1818.[52] Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soon met Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807.[50] Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine."[50] The first production trial of this model occurred in April 1811. He produced his machine with assistance from German engineer Andreas Friedrich Bauer.
Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to The Times in London in 1814, capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The first edition so printed was on November 28, 1814. They went on to perfect the early model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapers available to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one of the world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today.
The steam powered rotary printing press, invented in 1843 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe,[53] allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace.
Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable of printing small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing presses were capable of quick set-up (average setup time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour [iph] with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work).[citation needed] Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicating solution for commerce at this time.
By the late 1930s or early 1940s, printing presses had increased substantially in efficiency: a model by Platen Printing Press was capable of performing 2,500 to 3,000 impressions per hour.[citation needed]
Hoe's 6-cylinder rotary printing press (1864)
The Miehle P.P. & Mfg. Co. 1905
A late 1930's Platen printing press model
[edit] Tags:Stanhope,Steam-powered,Industrial, | |
| Printing capacity | |
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The table lists the maximum number of pages which the various press designs could print per hour.
Hand-operated presses
Steam-powered presses
Gutenberg-style
ca. 1600
Stanhope press
ca. 1800
Koenig press
1812
Koenig press
1813
Koenig press
1814
Koenig press
1818
Impressions per hour
240 [4]
480 [51]
800 [54]
1,100 [55]
2,000 [52]
2,400 [52]
[edit] Tags: | |
| See also | |
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General
Printing
Typography
Printing presses
Adana Printing Presses
Albion press
Columbian Printing Press
Flexography
Vertical print press
Other inventions
Color printing
Lithography
Offset printing
Desktop publishing
Electronic publishing
Computer printer
Composing stick
[edit] Tags: | |
| Notes | |
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^ See People of the Millennium for an overview of the wide acclaim. In 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown. In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium; the same did four prominent US journalists in their 1998 resume 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium. The Johann Gutenberg entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia describes his invention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era.
^ McLuhan 1962; Eisenstein 1980; Febvre & Martin 1997; Man 2002
^ McLuhan 1962, p. 124:
The invention of typography confirmed and extended the new visual stress of applied knowledge, providing the first uniformly repeatable commodity, the first assembly line, and the first mass production.
^ a b c d Wolf 1974, pp. 67f.:
From old price tables it can be deduced that the capacity of a printing press around 1600, assuming a fifteen-hour workday, was between 3,200 and 3,600 impressions per day.
Tags:Assembly Line, | |
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