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| Etymology | |
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The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.[6] When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.[7] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.[8] The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.[9] Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after the Peruvian War of Independence.
Tags:Independence,Pen,Pe,Spanish,Inca Empire,Europeans,Bay Of San Miguel,New World,Spanish Crown,Francisco Pizarro, | |
| History | |
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Main article: History of Peru
The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 years BCE.[10] The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.[11] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Cupisnique, Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimú. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.[12] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.[13]
In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured Inca Emperor Atahualpa. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.[14] Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce.[15] Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.[16] However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.[17] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.[18] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.[19]
In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San MartÃn and Simón BolÃvar.[20] During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.[21] National identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.[22] Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla through increased state revenues from guano exports.[23] However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.[24]
Independence was proclaimed by José de San MartÃn in 1821.
Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, losing the provinces of Arica and Tarapacá in the treaties of Ancón and Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. LeguÃa.[25] The Great Depression caused the downfall of LeguÃa, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).[26] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.[27]
In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.[28] In 1975, General Francisco Morales Bermúdez forcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.[29] During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and massive political violence.[30] Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.[31] Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth.[32]
Tags:South America,Bolivia,Chile,Norte Chico Civilization,Pre-columbian America,Bce,Cupisnique,Chavin,Paracas,Mochica,Nazca,Wari,Chimú,Incas,Largest Empire,Irrigation,Terracing,Camelid,Reciprocity,Redistribution,Conquistadors,Francisco De Toledo,Amerindian,Forced Labor,Bullion,Túpac Amaru Ii,Royalist, | |
| Government | |
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Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru
Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.
Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and can only seek re-election after standing down for at least one full term.[33] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.[34] Congress is unicameral with 130 members elected for a five-year term.[35] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.[36] The judiciary is nominally independent,[37] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.[38]
The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.[39] General elections held in 2011 ended in a second-round victory for presidential candidate Ollanta Humala of the Gana Perú alliance (51.4% of valid votes) over Keiko Fujimori of Fuerza 2011 (48.5%).[40] Congress is currently composed of Gana Perú (47 seats), Fuerza 2011 (37 seats), Alianza Parlamentaria (20 seats), Alianza por el Gran Cambio (12 seats), Solidaridad Nacional (8 seats) and Concertación Parlamentaria (6 seats).[41]
Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.[42] Currently, Peru disputes its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.[43] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[44] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.[45]
Tags:Presidential,Representative Democratic, | |
| Regions | |
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Main article: Administrative divisions of Peru
Ama
zonas
Ancash
ApurÃmac
Arequipa
Ayacucho
Caja
marca
Cusco
Huánuco
Huanca
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