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| History | |
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The language was standardized for the mission of the two apostles to Great Moravia in 863 (see Glagolitic alphabet for details). For that purpose, Cyril and his brother Methodius started to translate religious literature to Old Church Slavonic, allegedly based on Slavic dialects spoken in the hinterland of their home-town, Thessaloniki,[11] in the region of Macedonia.
As part of the preparation for the mission, in 862/863, the Glagolitic alphabet was created and the most important prayers and liturgical books, including the Aprakos Evangeliar (a Gospel Book lectionary containing only feast-day and Sunday readings), the Psalter, and Acts of the Apostles, were translated. (The Gospels were also translated early, but it is unclear whether Sts. Cyril or Methodius had a hand in this). The language and the alphabet were taught at the Great Moravian Academy (Veľkomoravské učilište) and were used for government and religious documents and books between 863 and 885. The texts written during this phase contain characteristics of the Slavic vernaculars in Great Moravia.
A leaf from the Flowery Triod (Triod' cvetnaja) from about 1491, one of the oldest printed Byzantine-Slavonic books, National Library of Poland.
In 885, the use of the Old Church Slavonic in Great Moravia was prohibited by the Pope in favour of Latin. Students of the two apostles, who were expelled from Great Moravia in 886, brought the Glagolitic alphabet and the Old Church Slavonic language to the Bulgarian Empire. It was taught at two Bulgarian literary schools in Preslav (capital 893–972) and Ohrid (capital 991/997–1015).[12][13][14] The Cyrillic script was developed shortly afterwards in the Preslav Literary School and replaced the Glagolitic one. The texts written during this era contain characteristics of the vernacular of Bulgaria. There are some linguistic differences between texts written in the two academies. Thereupon the language, in its Bulgarian dialects, spread to other South-Eastern and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably to Croatia, Serbia, Bohemia, Lesser Poland, and principalities of the Kievan Rus'. The texts written in each country contain characteristics of the local Slavic vernacular. By the mid-eleventh century, OCS diversified into regional versions: Bulgarian, Serbian, Old Russian, and up to the fifteenth century, also Czech and Croatian. These local offspring of OCS, are called “Church Slavonic” languages.[15]
Apart from the Slavic countries, Slavonic has been used as a liturgical language by the Romanian Orthodox Church, as well as a literary and official language of the prince courts of Wallachia and Moldavia (see Old Church Slavonic in Romania), before gradually being replaced by Romanian starting with the 18th century.
Church Slavonic maintained a prestige status, particularly in Russia, for many centuries – among Slavs in the East it had a status analogous to that of the Latin language in western Europe, but had the advantage of being substantially less divergent from the vernacular tongues of average parishioners. Some Orthodox churches, such as the Macedonian Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church, Bulgarian Orthodox Church and Serbian Orthodox Church, as well as several Greek Catholic churches, still use Church Slavonic in their services and chants today.
[edit] Tags:Eastern Europe,Liturgical Language,Slavic,South,Glagolitic,Ipa,Literary,Church Slavonic,Great Moravia,Glagolitic Alphabet,Cyril,Methodius,Region Of Macedonia,Liturgical Books,Gospel Book,Lectionary,Psalter,Acts Of The Apostles,Vernaculars,National Library Of Poland,Pope,Latin,Apostles,Bulgarian Empire,Bulgarian,Preslav,Ohrid,Cyrillic Script,Preslav Literary School,Croatia,Serbia,Bohemia,Lesser Poland,Kievan Rus',Latin Language,Europe,Vernacular,Macedonian Orthodox Church,Russian Orthodox Church,Bulgarian Orthodox Church,Serbian Orthodox Church,Greek Catholic,Cyrillic,Dual,Bulgar,Macedonian,Bulgarian Dialects,Orthodox Church,Moravian, | |
| Script | |
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Initially Old Church Slavonic was written with the Glagolitic alphabet, but later Glagolitic was replaced by Cyrillic.[16] Only in Croatia was the local variant of the Glagolitic alphabet preserved. See Early Cyrillic alphabet for a detailed description of the script and information about the sounds it originally expressed.
Example of Old Church Slavic, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa Chapel, Krasnoyarsk, Russia
[edit] Tags:Early Cyrillic Alphabet,Yat, | |
| Grammar | |
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Main article: Old Church Slavonic grammar
As an ancient Indo-European language, OCS has highly inflective morphology. Nominals can be declined in three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), three numbers (singular, plural, dual) and seven cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, genitive, and locative. Synthetic verbal conjugation is expressed in present, aorist and imperfect tenses, while perfect, pluperfect, future and conditional tenses/moods are made by combining auxiliary verbs with participles or synthetic tense forms.
[edit] Tags:Indo-european,Grammatical Genders,Cases,Nominative,Vocative,Accusative,Instrumental,Dative,Genitive,Locative,Synthetic, | |
| Basis and local influences | |
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Old Church Slavonic is evidenced by a relatively small body of manuscripts, most of which were written in Bulgaria during the late 10th and the early 11th centuries. The language has a Southern Slavic basis with an admixture of Western Slavic features inherited during the mission of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius to Great Moravia (863–885). The only well-preserved manuscript of Moravian dialect, the Kiev Folia, is characterised by the replacement of some Southern Slavic phonetic and lexical features with Western Slavic ones. Manuscripts written in the medieval Bulgarian tsardom have, on the other hand, few Western Slavic features.
Old Church Slavonic is valuable to historical linguists since it preserves archaic features believed to have once been common to all Slavic languages. Some of these features are:
The nasal vowels /ɛ̃/ and /ɔ̃/
Supershort /i/ and /u/. Sometimes known as a "pseudo-vowel", a word final non-syllabic vowel that is often reduced in quick speech to a velarisation or pharyngisation (respectively) of the preceeding consonant often accompanied with aspiration.
Open articulation[specify in IPA] of the yat vowel.
[ɲ] and [ʎ] from Proto-Slavic *nj and *lj
Proto-Slavic declension system based on stem-endings (so-called o-stems, jo-stems, a-stems and ja-stems)
aorists, the imperfect, Proto-Slavic paradigms for participles etc. were still used
The Southern Slavic nature of the language is evident from the following variations:
Phonetic:
/ra/, /la/ by means of liquid metathesis of Proto-Slavic *or, *ol clusters
/s/ from the Proto-Slavic *x before *ąi
/tsv/ and /dzv/ from the Proto-Slavic *kv', *gv'
morphosyntactic
use of the dative possessive case in personal pronouns and nouns: rǫka ti; otъpuštenьe grěxomъ; descriptive future tense using the verb xotěti ("to want"); use of the comparative form mьnii (smaller) to denote "younger".
use of suffixed demonstrative pronouns (tъ, ta, to). In Bulgarian and Macedonian these developed into suffixed definite articles.
Old Church Slavonic has some extra features in common with Bulgarian:
Open articulation of the Yat vowel (ě); still preserved in the Bulgarian dialects of the Rhodope mountains;
The existence of /ʃt/ and /ʒd/ as reflexes of Proto-Slavic *tj and *dj or *gt and *kt before front vowels.
Use of possessive dative for personal pronouns and nouns, as in bratъ mi, rǫka ti, otъpuštenьe grěxomъ, xramъ molitvě, etc.
Descriptive future tense with the auxiliary verb xotěti, for example xoštǫ pisati
Proto-Slavic
OCS
Bulg.
Czech
Maced.
Pol.
Rus.
Slovak
Sloven.
Cro./Serb.
*dʲ
ʒd
ʒd
z
ɟ
dz
ʑ
dz
j
dʑ
*tʲ
ʃt
ʃt
ts
c
ts
tɕ
ts
tʃ
tɕ
*ɡt/kt
ʃt
ʃt
ts
c
ts
tɕ
ts
tʃ
tɕ
[edit] Tags:Manuscripts,Saint Cyril,Saint Methodius,Liquid Metathesis,Rhodope Mountains,Front Vowels, | |
| Moravian dialect | |
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The language was standardized for the first time by the mission of the two apostles to Great Moravia in 863. While in the Prague fragments the only Moravian influence is replacing /ʃt/ with /ts/ and /ʒd/ with /z/, the dialect evidenced by the Kiev Folia is characterised by the following features:
Confusion between the letters Big yus (Ѫ) and Uk (ѹ) occurs once in the Kiev Folia, when the expected form въсѹдъ is spelled въсѫдъ
/ts/ from Proto-Slavic *tj, use of /dz/ from *dj, /ʃtʃ/ *skj
use of the words mьša, cirky, papežь, prěfacija, klepati, piskati etc.
preservation of the consonant cluster /dl/ (e.g. modlitvami)
use of the ending –ъmь instead of –omь in the masculine singular instrumental, use of the pronoun čьso
[edit] Tags: | |
| Bulgarian dialect(s) | |
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Map of the First Bulgarian Empire with its literary centres, the places where the two earliest revisions of Old Church Slavonic were developed along with Cyrillic
Old Church Slavonic was developed initially in the First Bulgarian Empire and was taught in Preslav (Bulgarian capital between 893 and 972), and in Ohrid (Bulgarian capital between 991/997 and 1015).[17][18][19] It didn't represent one regional dialect but a generalized form of early eastern South Slavic, which cannot be localized.[20] The existence of two major literary centres in the Empire led in the period from the ninth to the eleventh centuries to the development of two dialects, named "(Eastern) Bulgarian" and "(Western) Macedonian" respectively.[21][22] Some researchrs do not distinguish different Bulgarian dialects, but only one, called "Macedo-Bulgarian"[23] or simply "Bulgarian".[24][25] Others, as Horace Lunt, have changed their opinion with time.[26] The development of the Slavic literacy at that time, was crucial for the development of distinct Bulgarian ethnic consciousness in the state.[27]
[edit] Tags:First Bulgarian Empire,Horace Lunt, | |
| (Eastern) Bulgarian dialect | |
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The (Eastern)[28] Bulgarian dialect[29][30][31] is one of the oldest dialects of the Old Church Slavonic language.[32] The main literary centre of this dialect was the Preslav Literary School. Cyrillic is attributed to this school, as the earliest datable Cyrillic inscriptions have been found in the area. A number of prominent Bulgarian writers and scholars worked at the school, including Naum of Preslav (until 893), Constantine of Preslav, John Exarch, Chernorizets Hrabar, etc. The main features of this dialect are the following:
The Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets were used concurrently.
In some documents the original supershort vowels ъ and ь merged with one letter taking the place of the other.
In Macedonian dialects ъ was sometimes substituted with о.
In Bulgarian dialects the original ascending reflex (рь, ль) of syllabic /r/ and /l/ was sometimes metathesized to ьр, ьл; or a combination of the ordering was used.
The central vowel ы merged with ъи.
Sometimes the use of letter ⟨Ѕ⟩ (/dz/) was merged with that of ⟨З⟩ (/z/).
The verb forms нарицаѭ, нарицаѥши were substituted or alternated with наричяѭ, наричяеши.
Use of some words with Bulgar origin, such as кумиръ, чрьтогъ, блъванъ, etc.
Present-day Modern Bulgarian was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Eastern Bulgarian vernacular.
[edit] Tags:Naum Of Preslav,Constantine Of Preslav,John Exarch,Chernorizets Hrabar,Modern Bulgarian, | |
| (Western) Macedonian dialect | |
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The (Western)[33] Macedonian dialect[34][35][36][37] is one of the oldest dialects of Old Church Slavonic. The dialect is named so by modern scientists because its literary centre, Ohrid, is located in what today is referred to as the geographical region of Macedonia, today part of the Republic of Macedonia. At that period, administratively Ohrid was in the province of Kutmichevitsa in the First Bulgarian Empire until 1018.[38] The main literary centre of this dialect was the Ohrid Literary School, whose most prominent member and most likely founder, was Saint Clement of Ohrid. The language variety that was used in the area started shaping Macedonian dialects.[39][40] This dialect is represented by the Codex Zographensis and Marianus, among others. The main features of this dialect are the following:
Continuous usage of the Glagolithic alphabet instead of Cyrillic;
A feature called "mixing (confusion) of the nasals" so that /ɔ̃/ became [ɛ̃] after /rʲ lʲ nʲ/, and in a cluster of a labial consonant and /lʲ/. /ɛ̃/ became [ɔ̃] after sibilant consonants and /j/.
Wide use of the soft consonant clusters /ʃt/ and /ʒd/; in the later stages, these developed into the modern Macedonian phonemes /c/ /ɟ/
Strict distinction in the articulation of the yers and their vocalisation in strong position (ъ → /o/ and ь → /e/) or deletion in weak position;
Confusion of /ɛ̃/ with yat and yat with /e/;
Denasalization in the latter stages: /ɛ̃/ → /e/ and /ɔ̃/ → /a/, оу, ъ;
Wider usage and retainment of the phoneme /dz/ (which in all Slavic languages but Macedonian has dеaffricated to /z/);
The Macedonian language was standardized in 1945 on the basis of the Central Macedonian dialects which evolved from the Macedonian dialect. Even though nowadays the Macedonian dialects make the Macedonian language itself,[39][40] most sources before the Second World War referred to them as Bulgarian dialects.[41][42][43][44][45][46]
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[edit] Tags:Eastern Catholic,Geographical Region Of Macedonia,Republic Of Macedonia,Kutmichevitsa,Ohrid Literary School,Saint Clement Of Ohrid,Codex Zographensis,Marianus,Glagolithic Alphabet,Second World War,A Series, | |
| Later dialects | |
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Main article: Church Slavonic
Later use of the language in a number of medieval Slavic states resulted in the adjustment of Old Church Slavonic to the local vernacular, though a number of Southern Slavic, Moravian or Bulgarian features were also preserved. Some of the significant later dialects of Old Church Slavonic (referred to as Church Slavonic) in the present time are: Slovene, Croatian, Serbian, Russian. In all cases, denasalization of the yuses occurred; so that only Old Church Slavonic and modern Polish retained the old Slavonic nasal vowels.
[edit] Tags: | |
| Serbian dialect | |
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The Serbian dialect[47] was written in mostly Cyrillic, but also the Glagolitic alphabet depending on region, by the 12th century the Serbs used exclusively the Cyrillic alphabet (and Latin script in coastal areas). The 1186 Miroslav Gospels is written in the Serbian dialect. Characteristics are as follows:
nasal vowels were denasalised and in one case closed: *ę > e, *ǫ > u, e.g. OCS rǫka -> Sr. ruka ("hand"), OCS językъ -> Sr. jezik ("tongue, language")
extensive use of diacritical signs by the Resava dialect
use of letters i, y, ě for the sound /i/ by the Bosnian variant, and i, y for the sound /i/ by other variants of the Serbian dialect.
Due to Bulgaria becoming annexed in 1396, and the Ottoman conquering of Serbia in 1459, Serbia saw an influx of educated refugee-scribes trained in the Bulgarian dialect in that period, which re-introduced a more classical form.
[edit] Tags: | |
| Russian dialect | |
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The Russian dialect was developed after the 10th century on the basis of the earlier Bulgarian dialects, from which it differed slightly. Its main features are:
substitution of the nasal sound /õ/ with [u]
merging of letters ě and ja[48]
[edit] Tags: | |
| (Middle) Bulgarian dialect | |
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The line between OCS and post-OCS manuscripts is arbitrary and terminology is varied. The common term "Middle Bulgarian" is usually contrasted to "Old Bulgarian" (= OCS), and loosely used for manuscripts whose language demonstrates a broad spectrum of regional and temporal dialect featers after the 11th century.[49]
[edit] Tags: | |
| Croatian dialect | |
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The Croatian dialect of Old Church Slavonic is one of the earliest known today. It only used the Glagolitic alphabet of angular Croatian type. It is characterized by the following developments:
de-nasalisation of PSl. *ę > e, PSl. *ǫ > u, e.g. Cr. ruka : OCS rǫka ("hand"), Cr. jezik : OCS językъ ("tongue, language")
PSl. *y > i, e.g. Cr. biti : OCS byti ("to be")
PSl. weak-positioned yers *ъ and *ь in merged, probably representing some schwa-like sound, and only one of the letters was used (usually 'ъ'). Evident in earliest documents like Baška tablet.
PSl. strong-positioned yers *ъ and *ь were vocalized into a in most Štokavian and Čakavian speeches, e.g. Cr. pas : OCS pьsъ ("dog")
PSl. hard and soft syllabic liquids *r and r′ retained syllabicity and were written as simply r, as opposed to OCS sequences of mostly rь and rъ, e.g. krstъ and trgъ as opposed to OCS krьstъ and trъgъ ("cross", "market")
PSl. #vьC and #vъC > #uC, e.g. Cr. udova : OCS. vъdova ("widow")
[edit] Tags: | |
| Canon of Old Church Slavonic | |
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The core corpus of Old Church Slavonic manuscripts is usually referred to as canon. Manuscript must satisfy certain linguistic, chronological and cultural criteria to be incorporated into the canon, i.e. it must not significantly depart from the language and tradition of Constantine and Methodius, usually known as the Cyrillo-Methodian tradition.
For example, the Freising Fragments, dating from the tenth century, do show some linguistic and cultural traits of Old Church Slavonic, but are usually not included in the canon as some of the phonological features of the writings appear to belong to certain Pannonian Slavic dialect of the period. Similarly, the Ostromir Gospels exhibits dialectal features that classify it as East Slavic, rather than South Slavic, so it's not included in the canon either. On the other hand, the Kiev Missal is included in the canon, even though it manifests some West Slavic features and contains Western liturgy, due to the Bulgarian linguistic layer and connection to the Moravian mission.
Manuscripts are usually classified in two groups, depending on the used alphabet, of Cyrillic and Glagolitic. With the exception of Kiev Missal and Glagolita Clozianus which exhibit West-Slavic and Croatian features respectively, all Glagolitic texts are assumed to be of the Macedonian dialect:
Kiev Missal (Ki, KM), seven folios, late tenth century
Codex Zographensis, (Zo), 288 folios, tenth or eleventh century
Codex Marianus (Mar), 173 folios, early eleventh century
Codex Assemanius (Ass), 158 folios, early eleventh century
Psalterium Sinaiticum (Pas, Ps. sin.), 177 folios, eleventh century
Euchologium Sinaiticum (Eu, Euch), 109 folios, eleventh century
Glagolita Clozianus (Clo, Cloz), 14 folios, eleventh century
Ohrid Folios (Ohr), 2 folios, eleventh century
Rila Folios (Ri, Ril), 2 folios and 5 fragments, eleventh century
All Cyrillic manuscripts are of the Bulgarian dialect and date from the eleventh century, except for Zographos Fragments which are of the Macedonian dialect:
Sava's book (Sa, Sav), 126 folios
Codex Suprasliensis, (Supr), 284 folios
Enina Apostle (En, Enin), 39 folios
Hilandar Folios (Hds, Hil), 2 folios
Undol'skij's Fragments (Und), 2 folios
Macedonian Folio (Mac), 1 folio
Zographos Fragments (Zogr. Fr.), 2 folios
Sluck Psalter (Ps. Sl., Sl), 5 folios
[edit] Tags: | |
| Authors | |
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The history of Old Church Slavonic writing includes a northern tradition begun by the mission to Great Moravia, including a short mission in the Balaton principality, and a Bulgarian tradition begun by some of the missionaries who relocated to Bulgaria after the expulsion from Great Moravia.
Old Church Slavonic's first writings, translations of Christian liturgical and Biblical texts, were produced by Byzantine missionaries Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, mostly during their mission to Great Moravia.
The most important authors in Old Church Slavonic after the death of Methodius and the dissolution of the Great Moravian academy were Clement of Ohrid (active also in Great Moravia), Constantine of Preslav, Chernorizetz Hrabar and John Exarch, all of whom worked in medieval Bulgaria at the end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th century. The Second Book of Enoch was only preserved in Old Church Slavonic, although the original most certainly had been Greek or even Hebrew or Aramaic.
[edit] Tags: | |
| Nomenclature | |
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The name of the language in Old Church Slavonic texts was simply Slavic (словѣ́ньскъ ѩзꙑ́къ, slověnĭskŭ językŭ),[50] derived from the word for Slavs (словѣ́нє, slověne), the self-designation of the compilers of the texts. This name is preserved in the modern names of the Slovak and Slovene languages. The language is sometimes called Old Slavic, which may be confused with the distinct Proto-Slavic language. The commonly accepted terms in modern English-language Slavic studies are Old Church Slavonic and Old Church Slavic.
Historically, a few now-obsolete[51] names have also been used:
Old Bulgarian[52] is the only designation used by Bulgarian-language writers. Outside of Bulgaria, Old Bulgarian (German: Altbulgarisch) was used in the 19th century by August Schleicher, Martin Hattala, Leopold Geitler and August Leskien[53][54] who noted similarities between the first literary Slavic works and the modern Bulgarian language. For similar reasons, Russian linguist Aleksandr Vostokov used the term Slav-Bulgarian.
Old Macedonian[55][56][57][58] is occasionally used by Western scholars for many of the same reasons, but also in a regional context.
Old Slovenian[51][59][60][61] was used by early 19th century scholars who conjectured that the language was based on the dialect of Pannonia.
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| Modern Slavic nomenclature | |
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Here are some of the names used by speakers of modern Slavic languages:
Belarusian: старажытна славянская мова (staražytnasłavianskaja mova), ‘Old Slavic’
Bosnian: staro(crkveno)slavenski, ‘Old (Church) Slavic’
Bulgarian: старобългарски (starobălgarski), ‘Old Bulgarian’
Czech: staroslověnština, ‘Old Slavic’
Croatian: staro(crkveno)slavenski, ‘Old (Church) Slavic’
Macedonian: старо(црковно)словенски (staro(crkovno)slovenski), ‘Old (Church) Slavic’
Polish: staro-cerkiewno-słowiański, ‘Old Church Slavic’
Russian: старославянский язык (staroslavjánskij jazýk), ‘Old Slavic language’
Serbian: staro(crkveno)slovenski, ‘Old (Church) Slavic’
Slovak: (staro)slovienčina, ‘(Old) Slavic’
Slovene: stara cerkvena slovanščina, ‘Old Church Slavic’
Ukrainian: старослов’янська мова (staroslovjans'ka mova), ‘Old Slavic’
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