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| History of the modern term | |
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The name Occitan comes from lenga d'òc (i.e., òc language), which comes from òc, the Occitan word for yes. The Italian medieval poet Dante was the first to have recorded the term lingua d'oc. In his De vulgari eloquentia he wrote in Latin: "nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil" ("for some say òc, others sì, yet others oïl"), thereby highlighting three major Romance literary languages that were well known in Italy, based on each language's word for "yes", the òc language (Occitan), the oïl language (French), and the sì language (Italian). This was not, of course, the only defining character of each group.
The word òc came from Vulgar Latin hoc ("this"), while oïl originated from Latin hoc illud ("this [is] it"). Old Catalan and nowadays the Catalan of Northern Catalonia (France, Catalunya Nord) also have hoc (òc). Other Romance languages derive their word for yes from the Latin sic, "thus [it is], [it was done], etc.", such as Spanish sÃ, Eastern Lombard sé, Italian sì, or Portuguese sim. In Modern Catalan, as in modern Spanish, sà is usually used as a response, although the language retains the word oi, akin to òc, which is sometimes used at the end of yes-no questions and in higher register also as a positive response.[10] French uses si in response to questions where a negative answer is expected: e.g., "Vous n'avez pas de frères?" "Si, j'en ai sept." ("You have no brothers?" "Yes [I do], I have seven.").
[edit] Tags:France,Italy,Romance,Catalonia,French,Romance Language,Catalan,Dante,Vulgar Latin,Eastern Lombard,Yes-no Questions,Medieval,Latin,Italian, | |
| Other names for Occitan | |
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For many centuries, the Occitan dialects (together with Catalan)[11] were referred to as Limousin or Provençal, the names of two regions lying within modern "Occitania". After Mistral's Félibrige movement in the 19th century, Provençal achieved the greatest literary recognition and so became the most popular term for the Occitan language.
According to Joseph Anglade, a philologist and specialist of medieval literature who helped impose the then archaic term Occitan as the sole correct name,[12][13] the word Lemosin was first used to designate the language at the beginning of the 13th century by Catalan troubadour Raimon Vidal de Besalú in his Razós de trobar[14]
La parladura Francesca val mais et [es] plus avinenz a far romanz e pasturellas; mas cella de Lemozin val mais per far vers et cansons et serventés; et per totas las terras de nostre lengage son de major autoritat li cantar de la lenga Lemosina que de negun'autra parladura, per qu'ieu vos en parlarai primeramen.
The French language is worthier and better suited for romances and pastourelles; but the one from Limousin is of greater value for writing poems and cançons and sirventés; and across the whole of the lands where our tongue is spoken, the literature in the Limousin language has more authority than any other dialect, wherefore I shall use this name in priority.
As for the word Provençal, it should not be taken as strictly meaning the language of Provence but Occitania as a whole, as, "in the eleventh, the twelfth, and sometimes also the thirteenth centuries, one would understand under the name of Provence the whole territory of the old Provincia Romana and even Aquitaine".[15] The term first came into fashion in Italy.[16]
Nowadays, linguists use the terms Provençal and Limousin strictly to refer to specific varieties within Occitania, whereas Occitan is used for the language as a whole. Many non-specialists, however, continue to refer to the language as Provençal, causing some confusion.
[edit] Tags:Limousin,Provençal,Mistral,Philologist,Troubadour,Raimon Vidal De Besalú,Romances,Pastourelles,Cançons,Sirventés,Provence,Provincia Romana,Aquitaine, | |
| History | |
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Further information: Old Occitan, Occitan literature
One of the oldest written fragments of the language ever found dates back to the year 960, in an official text that was mixed with Latin:[17]
De ista hora in antea non DECEBRÀ Ermengaus filius Eldiarda Froterio episcopo filio Girberga NE Raimundo filio Bernardo vicecomite de castello de Cornone... NO·L LI TOLRÀ NO·L LI DEVEDARÀ NI NO L'EN DECEBRÀ... nec societatem non AURÀ, si per castellum recuperare NON O FA, et si recuperare potuerit in potestate Froterio et Raimundo LO TORNARÀ, per ipsas horas quæ Froterius et Raimundus L'EN COMONRÀ. [...]
It is interesting to note that Carolinian litanies (ca 780), both written and sung in Latin, were answered to in Old Occitan by the audience (Ora pro nos; Tu lo juva).[18]
Other famous pieces include the Boecis, a 258-line-long poem written entirely in the Limousin dialect of Occitan between the year 1000 and 1030 and inspired by Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy; the Waldensian La Nobla Leyczon (dated 1100[19]), la Cançó de Santa Fe (ca 1054–1076), the Romance of Flamenca (13th c.), the Song of the Albigensian Crusade (1213–1219?), Daurel et Beton (12th or 13th c.), Las, qu'i non sun sparvir, astur (11th c.) and Tomida femina (9th or 10th c.).
Occitan was the vehicle for the influential poetry of the medieval troubadours and trobairises: At that time, the language was understood and celebrated throughout most of educated Europe.[20] With the gradual imposition of French royal power over its territory, Occitan declined in status from the 14th century on. By the Edict of Villers-Cotterets (1539) it was decreed that the langue d'oïl (Northern French) should be used for all French administration. Occitan's greatest decline was during the French Revolution, during which diversity of language was considered a threat. The literary renaissance of the late 19th century (which included a Nobel Prize for Frédéric Mistral) was attenuated by the First World War, when Occitan speakers spent extended periods of time alongside French-speaking comrades.
[edit] Tags:Carolinian,Litanies,780,Boecis,Boethius,Consolation Of Philosophy,Waldensian,La Nobla Leyczon,Cançó De Santa Fe,Romance Of Flamenca,Song Of The Albigensian Crusade,Daurel Et Beton,Las, Qu'i Non Sun Sparvir, Astur,Poetry,Trobairises,French Revolution,Frédéric Mistral, | |
| Origins | |
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Because the geographical territory in which Occitan is spoken is surrounded by regions in which other Romance languages are used, external influences could have influenced its origin and development. Many factors favoured its development as a language of its own.
Mountains and seas: The range of Occitan is bounded naturally by the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the Massif Central, the Pyrenees, and the Alps.
Buffer zones: Arid land, marshes, and areas otherwise impractical for farming and resistant of colonization provide further separation (territory between Loire and Garonne, the Aragon desert plateau).
Constant populations: Some Occitan-speaking peoples are descended from people living in the region since prehistory (Bec, 1963).
Little Celtic influence (Bec, 1963)
Ancient and long-term Roman influence: Julius Caesar once said that the people of Aquitaine could teach the Romans themselves to speak Latin more correctly. According to Müller, "France's linguistic separation began with Roman influence" (Bec, 1963, pp. 20, 21)
A separate lexicon: Although Occitan is mid-way between Gallo-Romance and Ibero-Romance language groups, it has "around 550 words inherited from Latin that do not exist in the langue d'oïl or in franco-provençal" (Bec, 1963, 20, 21).
Little germanization: "The Frankish lexicon and its phonetic influence often end above the oc/oïl line" (Bec, 1963, 20, 21)
[edit] Tags:Gallo-romance,/,Massif Central,Pyrenees,Alps,Arid,Marshes,Loire,Garonne,Celtic,Julius Caesar,Frankish, | |
| Occitan in Spain | |
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Occitan is closely related to Catalan, with which it shares many linguistic features and even a common origin (see Occitano-Romance languages). The language was one of the first to gain prestige as a medium for literature among Romance languages in the Middle Ages. Indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries, Catalan troubadours such as Guerau de Cabrera, Guilhem de Bergadan, Guilhem de Cabestany, Huguet de Mataplana, Raimon Vidal de Besalú, Cerverà de Girona, Formit de Perpinhan, and Jofre de Foixà wrote in Occitan.
At the end of the 11th century, the Franks, as they were called at the time, started to penetrate the Iberian Peninsula through the Ways of St. James via Somport and Roncesvalles, settling on various spots of the Kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon enticed by the privileges granted them by the Navarrese kings. They established themselves in ethnic boroughs where Occitan was used for everyday life, e.g. Pamplona, Sangüesa, Estella, etc.[21] The language in turn became the status language chosen by the Navarrese kings, nobility and upper classes for official and trade purposes in the period stretching from the early 13th century to late 14th century.[22] These boroughs in Navarre may have been close-knit communities with little mingling, in a context where the natural milieu was predominantly Basque-speaking. The variant chosen for written administrative records was a koiné based on Languedocien from Toulouse with fairly archaic linguistic features. Evidence of a written account in Occitan from Pamplona revolving around the burning of borough San Nicolas has reached up to our days (1258), while the History of the War of Navarre by Guilhem Anelier (1276) albeit written in Pamplona shows a linguistic variant from Toulouse.[23]
Things turned out slightly otherwise in Aragon, where the sociolinguistic situation was different, with a clearer Basque-Romance bilingual situation (cf. Basques from the Val d'Aran cited circa 1000),[24] but a receding Basque language (Basque banned in the marketplace of Huesca, 1349).[25][26] While the language was chosen as a medium of prestige in records and official statements along with Latin in the early 13th century, Occitan faced competition from the rising local Romance vernacular, the Navarro-Aragonese, both orally and in writing, especially after Aragon's territorial conquests south to Saragossa, Huesca and Tudela between 1118 and 1134. It resulted that a second Occitan immigration of this period was assimilated by the similar Navarro-Aragonese language, which at the same time was fostered and chosen by the kings of Aragon. The language fell into decay in the 14th century across the whole southern Pyrenean area and became largely absorbed into Navarro-Aragonese first and Castilian later in the 15th century, after their exclusive boroughs broke up (1423, Pamplona's boroughs unified).[27]
Gascon-speaking communities were called in for trading purposes by Navarrese kings in the early 12th century to the coastal fringe extending from Donostia to the Bidasoa, where they settled down. The language variant used was different from the ones used in Navarre, i.e. a Béarnese Gascon,[28] with Gascon being in use far longer than in Navarre and Aragon till the 19th century, thanks mainly to the close ties held by Donostia and Pasaia with Bayonne.
[edit] Tags:Gascon,Languedocien,Val D'aran,Iberian Peninsula, | |
| Usage in France | |
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"Speak French, Be Clean" written across the wall of a Southern French school
This bilingual street sign in Tolosa (Toulouse), like many such signs found in historical parts of the city, is maintained primarily for its antique charm; it is typical of what little remains of the lenga d'òc in southern French cities.[citation needed]
Though it was still an everyday language for most of the rural population of southern France well into the 20th century, it has been all but replaced by the systematic imposition of the French language. According to the 1999 census, there are 610,000 native speakers (almost all of whom are also native French speakers) and perhaps another million persons with some exposure to the language. Following the pattern of language shift, most of this remainder is to be found among the eldest populations. Occitan activists (called Occitanists) have attempted, in particular with the advent of Occitan-language preschools (the Calandretas), to reintroduce the language to the young. Nonetheless, the number of proficient speakers of Occitan appears to be dropping precipitously. A tourist in the cities in southern France is unlikely to hear a single Occitan word spoken on the street (or, for that matter, in a home), and is likely to only find the occasional vestige, such as street signs (and, of those, most will have French equivalents more prominently displayed), to remind them of the traditional language of the area. Occitans, as a result of more than 200 years of conditioned suppression and humiliation (see Vergonha), seldom speak their own language in the presence of foreigners, whether they're from abroad or from outside Occitania (in this case, often merely and abusively referred to as Parisiens or Nordistes, which means northerners). Occitan is still spoken by many elderly people in rural areas, but they generally switch to French when dealing with outsiders.
Occitan's decline is somewhat less pronounced in Bearn because of the province's history (a late addition to the Kingdom of France), though even there the language is little spoken outside the homes of the rural elderly. The village of Artix is notable for having elected to post street signs in the local language.
[edit] Tags:Southern France, | |
| Usage outside France | |
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In Val d'Aran, in the north-west corner of Catalonia, Spain, Aranese (a variety of Gascon, in turn a variety of Occitan) is spoken. It is an official language of Catalonia together with Catalan and Spanish.
In Italy, Occitan is also spoken in the Occitan Valleys (Alps) in Piedmont and Liguria. An Occitan-speaking enclave also has existed at Guardia Piemontese (Calabria) since the 14th century. Italy adopted in 1999 a Linguistic Minorities Protection Law, or "Law 482", which includes Occitan; however, Italian is the dominant language. It should be noted that the Piedmontese dialect is extremely close to Occitan.
In Monaco, some Occitan speakers coexist with remaining native Monegasque (Ligurian) speakers. French is the dominant language.
Scattered Occitan-speaking communities exist in different countries:
There were Occitan-speaking colonies in Württemberg (Germany) since the 18th century, the latter as a consequence of the Camisard war. The last Occitan speakers were heard in the 1930s.
In the Spanish Basque country, Gascon was spoken in the centre of Donostia-San Sebastián, perhaps until the beginning of the 20th century.[29]
In the Americas, Occitan speakers exist:
in the United States, in Valdese, North Carolina[30]
in Canada, in Quebec where there are Occitan associations such as Association Occitane du Québec and Association des Occitans.[31]
Pigüé, Argentina – Community settled by 165 Occitans from the Rodez-Aveyron area of Cantal in the late 19th century.
Guanajuato, Mexico – A sparse number of Occitan settlers are known to have settled in that state in the 19th century.[32]
[edit] Tags:Spain,Monaco,Guardia Piemontese,Calabria,Aranese, | |
| Traditionally Occitan-speaking areas | |
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Aquitaine — excluding the Basque-speaking part of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques in the western part of the department and a small part of Gironde where Saintongeais is spoken. The towns of Biarritz, Anglet, and Bayonne are originally Occitan-speaking, with Basque-speaking groups, but their Basque populations grew sharply during the industrial revolution.
Midi-Pyrénées — including one of France's largest cities, Toulouse. There are a few street signs in Toulouse in Occitan, and since late 2009 the Metro announcements are bilingual French-Occitan,[33] but otherwise the language is almost never heard spoken on the street.
Languedoc-Roussillon (from "Lenga d'òc") — including the areas around the medieval city of Carcassonne, excluding the large part of the Pyrénées-Orientales where Catalan is spoken (Fenolhedés is the only Occitan-speaking area of the Pyrénées-Orientales).
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur — except for the Roya and Bévéra valleys, where there is a transitional dialect between Ligurian and Occitan, (Roiasc, including Brigasc). There were former and now extinct isolated towns that spoke Ligurian in the department of Alpes-Maritimes. Mentonasque, that is spoken in Menton, is an Occitan transition dialect with a strong Ligurian influence.
In Monaco, Occitan coexists with Ligurian Monegasque. French is the dominant (and imposed) language.
Poitou-Charentes — Use of Occitan has declined here in the few parts it used to be spoken, replaced by French. Only Charente limousine, the eastern part of the region, has resisted. But moreover the natural & historical languages of most of the region are the Poitevin and Saintongeais.
Limousin — A rural region (about 710,000 inhabitants) where Occitan (Lemosin dialect, Nord-Occitan family) is still spoken among the oldest residents.
Auvergne — The language's use has declined in some urban areas. The department of Allier is divided between a southern Occitan-speaking area and a northern French-speaking area.
Centre region — Some villages, in the extreme South, speak Occitan.
Rhône-Alpes — While the south of the region is clearly Occitan-speaking, the central and northern Lyonnais, Forez and Dauphiné parts belong to the Franco-Provençal language area.
Occitan Valleys (Piedmont, Liguria) — Italian regions where Occitan is spoken only in the southern and central Alpine valleys.
Val d'Aran — part of Catalonia that speaks a mountain dialect of Gascon Occitan.
[edit] Tags:Western, | |
| Number of speakers | |
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The area where Occitan was historically dominant is home to some 15 million inhabitants. It may be spoken as a first language by as many as 1 million people[1] in France, Italy, Spain and Monaco. In Monaco, Occitan coexists with Monégasque Ligurian, which is the other native language.[34][35] Some researchers state that up to seven million people in France understand the language,[36][37][38] while twelve to fourteen million fully spoke it in 1921.[39] In 1860, Occitan speakers represented more than 39%[40] of the whole French population (52% for francophones proper); they were still 26% to 36% in the 1920s[41] and less than 7% in 1993.
[edit] Tags: | |
| Dialects | |
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Occitan dialects according to Pierre Bec
Supradialectal classification of Occitan according to P. Bec
Supradialectal classification of Occitan according to D. Sumien
Occitan is fundamentally defined by its dialects, rather than being a unitary language. Like other languages that fundamentally exist at a spoken, rather than written, level (e.g. Rhaeto-Romance, Franco-Provençal, Astur-Leonese, and Aragonese), every settlement technically has its own dialect, with the whole of Occitania forming a classic dialect continuum that changes gradually along any path from one side to the other. Nonetheless, specialists commonly divide Occitan into six main dialects:
Gascon: includes the Béarnese (sub-)dialect and Aranese (spoken in Spain).
Languedocien (lengadocian)
Limousin (lemosin)
Auvergnat (auvernhat)
Provençal (provençau or prouvençau), including the Niçard subdialect.
Shuadit language
Vivaro-Alpine (vivaroaupenc), also known as "Alpine" or "Alpine Provençal", and sometimes considered a subdialect of Provençal
Gascon is generally considered the most divergent, and descriptions of the main features of Occitan often consider Gascon separately. Max Wheeler notes that "probably only its copresence within the French cultural sphere has kept [Gascon] from being regarded as a separate language", and compares it to Franco-Provençal, which is considered a separate language from Occitan but is "probably not more divergent from Occitan overall than Gascon is."[42]
There is no general agreement about larger groupings of these dialects.
Max Wheeler[42] divides the dialects into two groups:
Southwestern (Gascon and Languedocien), more conservative
Northeastern (Limousin, Auvergnat, Provençal and Vivaro-Alpine), more innovative
Pierre Bec[43] divides the dialects into three groups:
Gascon, standing alone
Southern Occitan (Languedocien and Provençal)
Northern Occitan (Limousin, Auvergnat, Vivaro-Alpine)
Bec also notes that some linguists prefer a "supradialectal" classification that groups Occitan with Catalan as a part of a wider Occitano-Romanic diasystem. One such classification posits three groups:
"Arverno-Mediterranean" (arvèrnomediterranèu), same as Wheeler's northeastern group, i.e. Limousin, Auvergnat, Provençal and Vivaro-Alpine
"Central Occitan" (occitan centrau), Languedocien, excepting the Southern Languedocien subdialect
"Aquitano-Pyrenean" (aquitanopirenenc), Southern Languedocien, Gascon and Catalan
According to this view, Catalan is an ausbau language that became independent from Occitan during the 13th century, but originates from the Aquitano-Pyrenean group.
Domergue Sumien[44] proposes a slightly different supradialectal grouping.
Arverno-Mediterranean (arvèrnomediterranèu), same as in Bec and Wheeler, divided further:
Niçard-Alpine (niçardoaupenc), Vivaro-Alpine along with the Niçard subdialect of Provençal
Trans-Occitan (transoccitan), the remainder of Provençal along with Limousin and Auvergnat
Pre-Iberian (preïberic)
Central Occitan (occitan centrau), same as in Bec
Aquitano-Pyrenean (aquitanopirenenc), same as in Bec
[edit] Tags:Auvergnat,Vivaro-alpine, | |
| Standardization | |
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All these regional varieties of the Occitan language are written and valid. Standard Occitan, also called occitan larg (i.e., 'wide Occitan') Tags: | |
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