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| Historiography and periodization | |
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The term "Late Middle Ages" refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, the others being the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages. Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442).[4] Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439–1453). Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period (1683).
For 18th century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit.[5] The heart of this rediscovery lies in Italy, where, in the words of Jacob Burckhardt: "Man became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such" (The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1860).[6] This proposition was later challenged, and it was argued that the 12th century was a period of greater cultural achievement.[7]
As economic and demographic methods were applied to the study of history, the trend was increasingly to see the late Middle Ages as a period of recession and crisis. Belgian historian Henri Pirenne introduced the now common subdivision of Early, High and Late Middle Ages in the years around World War I.[8] Yet it was his Dutch colleague Johan Huizinga who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the Late Middle Ages, with his book The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919).[9] To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and the Low Countries rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth.[10]
Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis.[10] It is now (generally) acknowledged that conditions were vastly different north and south of the Alps, and "Late Middle Ages" is often avoided entirely within Italian historiography.[11] The term "Renaissance" is still considered useful for describing certain intellectual, cultural or artistic developments, but not as the defining feature of an entire European historical epoch.[12] The period from the early 14th century up until – sometimes including – the 16th century, is rather seen as characterised by other trends: demographic and economic decline followed by recovery, the end of western religious unity and the subsequent emergence of the nation state, and the expansion of European influence onto the rest of the world.[12]
[edit] Tags:Period,Middle Ages,High Middle Ages,Renaissance,France,Roman,Italy,Leonardo Bruni,History Of The Florentine People,Flavio Biondo,Decades Of History From The Deterioration Of The Roman Empire,Christoph Cellarius,Universal History Divided Into An Ancient, Medieval, And New Period,Jacob Burckhardt,The Civilization Of The Renaissance In Italy,Belgian,Henri Pirenne,Early,High,World War I,Dutch,Johan Huizinga,The Autumn Of The Middle Ages,Low Countries,Nation State,History,Early Middle Ages, | |
| History | |
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Human history
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The limits of Christian Europe were still being defined in the 14th and 15th centuries. While the Grand Duchy of Moscow was beginning to repel the Mongols, and the Iberian kingdoms completed the Reconquista of the peninsula and turned their attention outwards, the Balkans fell under the dominance of the Ottoman Empire.[13] Meanwhile, the remaining nations of the continent were locked in almost constant international or internal conflict.[14]
The situation gradually led to the consolidation of central authority, and the emergence of the nation state.[15] The financial demands of war necessitated higher levels of taxation, resulting in the emergence of representative bodies – most notably the English Parliament.[16] The growth of secular authority was further aided by the decline of the papacy with the Western Schism, and the coming of the Protestant Revolution.[17]
[edit] Tags:Western Schism,Ottoman Empire,Americas,Africa,Modern History,Classical Antiquity,Ancient History,Earliest Records,Near East,South Asia,Early Americas,Early Modern,Late Modern,Contemporary,Future,Christian Europe,Grand Duchy Of Moscow,Mongols,Iberian,Reconquista,Balkans,English Parliament,Protestant Revolution, | |
| Northern Europe | |
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Main articles: Denmark, Norway, Sweden
After the failed union of Sweden and Norway of 1319–1365, the pan-Scandinavian Kalmar Union was instituted in 1397.[18] The Swedes were reluctant members of the Danish-dominated union from the start. In an attempt to subdue the Swedes, King Christian II of Denmark had large numbers of the Swedish aristocracy killed in the Stockholm Bloodbath of 1520. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523.[19] Norway, on the other hand, became an inferior party of the union, and remained united with Denmark until 1814.[20]
Iceland benefited from its relative isolation, and was the only Scandinavian country not struck by the Black Death.[21] Meanwhile, the Norwegian colony on Greenland died out, probably under extreme weather conditions in the 15th century.[22] These conditions might have been the effect of the Little Ice Age.[23]
[edit] Tags:Black Death,Sweden,Norway,Kalmar Union,Danish,Christian Ii Of Denmark,Stockholm Bloodbath,Iceland,Scandinavian,Greenland,Little Ice Age,Union, | |
| British Isles | |
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Main article: Britain in the Middle Ages
The death of Alexander III of Scotland in 1286 threw the country into a succession crisis, and the English king, Edward I, was brought in to arbitrate. When Edward claimed overlordship over Scotland, this led to the Wars of Scottish Independence.[24] The English were eventually defeated, and the Scots were able to develop a stronger state under the Stewarts.[25]
From 1337, England's attention was largely directed towards France in the Hundred Years' War.[26] Henry V’s victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 briefly paved the way for a unification of the two kingdoms, but his son Henry VI soon squandered all previous gains.[27] The loss of France led to discontent at home, and almost immediately upon the end of the war in 1453, followed the dynastic struggles of the Wars of the Roses (c. 1455–1485), involving the rival dynasties of Lancaster and York.[28]
The war ended in the accession of Henry VII of the Tudor family, who could continue the work started by the Yorkist kings of building a strong, centralized monarchy.[29] While England's attention was thus directed elsewhere, the Hiberno-Norman lords in Ireland were becoming gradually more assimilated into Irish society, and the island was allowed to develop virtual independence under English overlordship.[30]
[edit] Tags:England,Hundred Years' War,Britain In The Middle Ages,Alexander Iii,Scotland,Edward I,Wars Of Scottish Independence,Stewarts,Henry V’s,Battle Of Agincourt,Henry Vi,Wars Of The Roses,Lancaster,York,Henry Vii,Tudor,Hiberno-norman,Ireland, | |
| Western Europe | |
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Main articles: France, Burgundy, Burgundian Netherlands
The French House of Valois, which followed the House of Capet in 1328, was at its outset virtually marginalized in its own country, first by the English invading forces of the Hundred Years' War, later by the powerful Duchy of Burgundy.[31] The appearance of Joan of Arc on the scene changed the course of war in favour of the French, and the initiative was carried further by King Louis XI.[32]
Meanwhile Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, met resistance in his attempts to consolidate his possessions, particularly from the Swiss Confederation formed in 1291.[33] When Charles was killed in the Burgundian Wars at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the Duchy of Burgundy was reclaimed by France.[34] At the same time, the County of Burgundy and the wealthy Burgundian Netherlands came into the Holy Roman Empire under Habsburg control, setting up conflict for centuries to come.[35]
[edit] Tags:Burgundy,Burgundian Netherlands,French,House Of Valois,House Of Capet,Duchy Of Burgundy,Joan Of Arc,Louis Xi,Charles The Bold, | |
| Central Europe | |
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Main articles: Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, Lithuania
Bohemia prospered in the 14th century, and the Golden Bull of 1356 made the king of Bohemia first among the imperial electors, but the Hussite revolution threw the country into crisis.[36] The Holy Roman Empire passed to the Habsburgs in 1438, where it remained until the Empire's dissolution in 1806.[37] Yet in spite of the extensive territories held by the Habsburgs, the Empire itself remained fragmented, and much real power and influence lay with the individual principalities.[38] Also financial institutions, such as the Hanseatic League and the Fugger family, held great power, both on an economic and a political level.[39]
Louis the Great
Louis' lands and countries (1370s).
Louis led successful campaigns from Lithuania to southern Italy.
The kingdom of Hungary experienced a golden age during the 14th century.[40] In particular the reign of the Angevin kings Charles Robert (1308–42) and his son Louis the Great (1342–82) were marked by greatness.[41] The country grew wealthy as the main European supplier of gold and silver.[42] Louis the Great led successful campaigns from Lithuania to Southern Italy, From Poland to Northern Greece. He had the greatest military potential of the 14th century with his enormous armies.(Often over 100,000 men). Meanwhile Poland's attention was turned eastwards, as the union with Lithuania created an enormous entity in the region.[43] The union, and the conversion of Lithuania, also marked the end of paganism in Europe.[44]
However, Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Instead, he named as his heir the young prince Sigismund of Luxemburg who was 11 years old. The Hungarian nobility did not accept his claim, and the result was an internal war. Sigismund eventually achieved total control of Hungary, and established his court in Buda and Visegrád. Both palaces were rebuilt and improved, being considered between the richest of its time in Europe. Inheriting the throne of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund continued conducting his politics from Hungary, but being busy fighting the Hussites, and the Ottoman Empire which started to become an important menace to Europe in the beginning of the 15th century.
The King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary was known to hold the biggest army of mercenaries of his time (The Black Army of Hungary) which he used to conquer Bohemia, Austria and fight the Ottoman Empire's menace. However, the end of the glory of the Kingdom happened in the beginning of the 16th century, when the King Louis II of Hungary was killed in the battle of Mohács in 1526 against the Ottoman Empire. Then Hungary fell in a serious crisis and was invaded, ending not only its significance in central Europe, but its medieval time with it.
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| Eastern Europe | |
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Main article: Grand Duchy of Moscow
The 13th century had seen the fall of the state of Kievan Rus', in the face of the Mongol invasion.[45] In its place would eventually emerge the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which won a great victory against the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.[46] The victory did not end Tartar rule in the region, however, and its immediate beneficiary was Lithuania, which extended its influence eastwards.[47]
It was under the reign of Ivan III, the Great (1462–1505), that Moscow finally became a major regional power, and the annexation of the vast Republic of Novgorod in 1478 laid the foundations for a Russian national state.[48] After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Russian princes started to see themselves as the heirs of the Byzantine Empire. They eventually took on the imperial title of Tsar, and Moscow was described as the Third Rome.[49]
[edit] Tags:Constantinople,Byzantine,Fall Of Constantinople, | |
| Balkans and Byzantines | |
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Main articles: Byzantine Empire, Bulgaria, Serbia, Albania
The Byzantine Empire had for a long time dominated the eastern Mediterranean in politics and culture.[50] By the 14th century, however, it had almost entirely collapsed into a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, centred on the city of Constantinople and a few enclaves in Greece.[51] With the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was permanently extinguished.[52]
The Bulgarian Empire was in decline by the 14th century, and the ascendancy of Serbia was marked by the Serbian victory over the Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbazhd in 1330.[53] By 1346, the Serbian king Stefan Dušan had been proclaimed emperor.[54] Yet Serbian dominance was short-lived; the Balkan coalitioned armies led by the Serbs were defeated by the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, where most of the Serbian nobility were killed and the south of the country came under Ottoman occupation, like Bulgaria before it.[55] Serbia fell in 1459, Bosnia in 1463 and Albania was finally conquered in 1479 a few years after the death of Skanderbeg. Belgrade (Hungarian domain) was the last Balkan city to fall under Ottoman rule in 1521. By the end of the medieval period, the entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by, or became vassals to, the Ottomans.[55]
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| Southern Europe | |
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Main articles: Italy, Spain, Portugal
Avignon was the seat of the papacy from 1309 to 1376.[56] With the return of the Pope to Rome in 1378, the Papal State developed into a major secular power, culminating in the morally corrupt papacy of Alexander VI.[57] Florence grew to prominence amongst the Italian city-states through financial business, and the dominant Medici family became important promoters of the Renaissance through their patronage of the arts.[58] Also other city states in northern Italy expanded their territories and consolidated their power, primarily Milan and Venice.[59] The War of the Sicilian Vespers had by the early 14th century divided southern Italy into an Aragon Kingdom of Sicily and an Anjou Kingdom of Naples.[60] In 1442, the two kingdoms were effectively united under Aragonese control.[61]
The 1469 marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon and 1479 death of John II of Aragon led to the creation of modern-day Spain.[62] In 1492, Granada was captured from the Moors, thereby completing the Reconquista.[63] Portugal had during the 15th century – particularly under Henry the Navigator – gradually explored the coast of Africa, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama found the sea route to India.[64] The Spanish monarchs met the Portuguese challenge by financing Columbus’s attempt to find the western sea route to India, leading to the discovery of America in the same year as the capture of Granada.[65]
[edit] Tags:Columbus,Vasco Da Gama,India, | |
| Late Medieval European society | |
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See also: Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Around 1300–1350 the Medieval Warm Period gave way to the Little Ice Age.[66] The colder climate resulted in agricultural crises, the first of which is known as the Great Famine of 1315-1317.[67] The demographic consequences of this famine, however, were not as severe as those of the plagues of the later century, particularly the Black Death.[68] Estimates of the death rate caused by this epidemic range from one third to as much as sixty percent.[69] By around 1420, the accumulated effect of recurring plagues and famines had reduced the population of Europe to perhaps no more than a third of what it was a century earlier.[70] The effects of natural disasters were exacerbated by armed conflicts; this was particularly the case in France during the Hundred Years' War.[71]
As the European population was severely reduced, land became more plentiful for the survivors, and labour consequently more expensive.[72] Attempts by landowners to forcibly reduce wages, such as the English 1351 Statute of Laborers, were doomed to fail.[73] These efforts resulted in nothing more than fostering resentment among the peasantry, leading to rebellions such as the French Jacquerie in 1358 and the English Peasants' Revolt in 1381.[74] The long-term effect was the virtual end of serfdom in Western Europe.[75] In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, landowners were able to exploit the situation to force the peasantry into even more repressive bondage.[76]
The upheavals caused by the Black Death left certain minority groups particularly vulnerable, especially the Jews.[77] The calamities were often blamed on this group, and anti-Jewish pogroms were carried out all over Europe; in February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg.[78] Also the state was guilty of discrimination against the Jews, as monarchs gave in to the demands of the people, the Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, from Spain in 1492 and from Portugal in 1497.[79]
While the Jews were suffering persecution, one group that probably experienced increased empowerment in the Late Middle Ages was women. The great social changes of the period opened up new possibilities for women in the fields of commerce, learning and religion.[80] Yet at the same time, women were also vulnerable to incrimination and persecution, as belief in witchcraft increased.[80]
Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced a steadily increasing urbanisation.[81] Cities were of course also decimated by the Black Death, but the urban areas' role as centres of learning, commerce and government ensured continued growth.[82] By 1500 Venice, Milan, Naples, Paris and Constantinople probably had more than 100,000 inhabitants.[83] Twenty-two other cities were larger than 40,000; most of these were to be found in Italy and the Iberian peninsula, but there were also some in France, the Empire, the Low Countries plus London in England.[83]
[edit] Tags:Jacquerie,Peasants' Revolt, | |
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