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| The TaÃnos | |
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The Arawakan-speaking TaÃnos moved into Hispaniola, displacing earlier inhabitants,[17] c. AD 650. They engaged in farming and fishing,[18][dead link] and hunting and gathering.[17] The fierce Caribs drove the TaÃnos to the northeastern Caribbean during much of the 15th century.[19] The estimates of Hispaniola's population in 1492 vary widely, including one hundred thousand,[20] three hundred thousand,[17] and four hundred thousand to two million.[21] Determining precisely how many people lived on the island in pre-Columbian times is next to impossible, as no accurate records exist.[22] By 1492 the island was divided into five TaÃno chiefdoms.[citation needed]
The Spanish arrived in 1492. After initially friendly relationships, the TaÃnos resisted the conquest, led by the female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua and her ex-husband Chief Caonabo of Maguana, as well as Chiefs Guacanagarix, Guamá, Hatuey, and Enriquillo. The latter's successes gained his people an autonomous enclave for a time on the island. Nevertheless, within a few years after 1492 the population of TaÃnos had declined drastically, due to smallpox and other diseases that arrived with the Europeans,[23] and from other causes discussed below. The decline continued, and by 1711 the TaÃnos numbered just 21,000.[24] The last record of pure TaÃnos in the country was from 1864. Still, TaÃno biological heritage survived to an important extent, due to intermixing. Census records from 1514 reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony had TaÃno wives,[25] and many present-day Dominicans have TaÃno ancestry.[26][27] Remnants of the Taino culture include their cave paintings,[28] as well as pottery designs which are still used in the small artisan village of Higüerito, Moca.[citation needed]
Tags:Dominican,Do,Spanish,Caribbean,TaÃnos,Arawakan-speaking,Dead Link,Caribs,Anacaona,Guacanagarix,Guamá,Hatuey,Enriquillo,Smallpox, | |
| Spanish rule | |
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Alcázar de Colón, located in Santo Domingo, is the oldest Viceregal residence in America.
Christopher Columbus arrived on Hispaniola on December 5, 1492, during the first of his four voyages to America. He claimed the island for Spain and named it La Española. In 1496 Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Santo Domingo, Europe's first permanent settlement in the "New World". The Spaniards created a plantation economy on the island.[20] The colony was the springboard for the further Spanish conquest of America and for decades the headquarters of Spanish power in the hemisphere. Christopher was buried in Santo Domingo upon his death in 1506.
The TaÃnos nearly disappeared, above all, from European infectious diseases to which they had no immunity.[29] Other causes were abuse, suicide, the breakup of family, starvation,[17] enslavement, forced labor, torture, war with the Spaniards, changes in lifestyle, and miscegenation. Laws passed for the Indians' protection (beginning with the Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513)[30] were never truly enforced. Yet as stated above, the TaÃnos did survive. Some scholars believe that las Casas exaggerated[31] the Indian population decline in an effort to persuade King Carlos to intervene, and that encomenderos also exaggerated it, in order to receive permission to import more African slaves. Moreover, censuses of the time omitted the Indians who fled into remote communities,[26] where they often joined with runaway Africans (cimarrones), producing Zambos. Also, Mestizos who were culturally Spanish were counted as Spaniards, some Zambos as black, and some Indians as Mulattos.[26]
Santo Domingo's population saw a spectacular increase during the 18th century, as it rose from some 6,000 in 1737 to about 125,000 in 1790. Approximately, this was composed of 40,000 white landowners, 25,000 black or mulatto freedmen, and 60,000 slaves.[32]
After its conquest of the Aztecs and Incas, Spain neglected its Caribbean holdings. French buccaneers settled in western Hispaniola, and by the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain ceded the area to France. France created the wealthy colony Saint-Domingue there, with a population 90% slave, and overall four times as populous (500,000 to 125,000) as the Spanish area at the end of the 18th century.[32]
Tags:Spain,Christopher Columbus,Santo Domingo,New World,Alcázar De Colón,Viceregal,Four Voyages,Bartholomew Columbus,Infectious Diseases,Miscegenation,Laws Of Burgos, 1512–1513,King Carlos,Zambos,Mestizos,Mulattos,Aztecs,Incas,Buccaneers,Treaty Of Ryswick, | |
| French rule | |
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France came to own the island in 1795, when by the Peace of Basel Spain ceded Santo Domingo as a consequence of the French Revolutionary Wars. At the time, Saint-Domingue's slaves, led by Toussaint Louverture, were in revolt against France. In 1801 they captured Santo Domingo, thus controlling the entire island; but in 1802 an army sent by Napoleon captured Toussaint Louverture and sent him to France as prisoner. However, Toussaint Louverture's lieutenants, and yellow fever, succeeded in expelling the French again from Saint-Domingue, which in 1804 the rebels made independent as the Republic of Haiti. Eastwards, France continued to rule Spanish Santo Domingo.
In 1808, following Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the criollos of Santo Domingo revolted against French rule and, with the aid of Great Britain (Spain's ally) and Haiti,[33] returned Santo Domingo to Spanish control.[34]
Tags:Haiti,Peace Of Basel,French Revolutionary Wars,Toussaint Louverture,Napoleon,Yellow Fever,Napoleon's Invasion Of Spain,Great Britain, | |
| Ephemeral independence and Haitian occupation | |
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Juan Pablo Duarte is widely considered the architect of the Dominican Republic and its independence from Haitian rule in 1844.
After a dozen years of discontent and failed independence plots by various groups, Santo Domingo's former Lieutenant-Governor (top administrator), José Núñez de Cáceres, declared the colony's independence as Spanish Haiti, on November 30, 1821. He requested the new state's admission to Simón BolÃvar's republic of Gran Colombia, but Haitian forces, led by Jean-Pierre Boyer, invaded just nine weeks later, in February 1822.[35]
As Toussaint Louverture had done two decades earlier, the Haitians abolished slavery. But they also nationalized most private property, including all the property of landowners who had left in the wake of the invasion; much Church property; as well as all property belonging to the former rulers, the Spanish Crown. Boyer also placed more emphasis on cash crops grown on large plantations, reformed the tax system, and allowed foreign trade. The new system was widely opposed by Dominican farmers, although it produced a boom in sugar and coffee production. All levels of education collapsed; the university was shut down, as it was starved both of resources and students, with young Dominican men from 16 to 25 years old being drafted into the Haitian army. Boyer's occupation troops, who were largely Dominicans, were unpaid, and had to "forage and sack" from Dominican civilians. Haiti imposed a "heavy tribute" on the Dominican people.[36]:page number needed Many whites fled Santo Domingo for Puerto Rico and Cuba (both still under Spanish rule), Venezuela, and elsewhere. In the end the economy faltered and taxation became more onerous. Rebellions occurred even by Dominican freedmen, while Dominicans and Haitians worked together to oust Boyer from power. Anti-Haitian movements of several kinds — pro-independence, pro-Spanish, pro-French, pro-British, pro-United States — gathered force following the overthrow of Boyer in 1843.[36]:page number needed
Tags:José Núñez De Cáceres,Gran Colombia, | |
| Independence | |
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See also: Dominican War of Independence
Dominican flag from 1844 to 1849
In 1838 Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society called La Trinitaria, which sought the complete independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention.[37]:p147–149 MatÃas Ramón Mella and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, despite not being among the founding members of La Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence. Duarte, Mella, and Sánchez are considered the three Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic.[citation needed] On February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios (the members of La Trinitaria), declared the independence from Haiti. They were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle rancher from El Seibo, who became general of the army of the nascent Republic. The Dominican Republic's first Constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and was modeled after the United States Constitution.[18][dead link]
The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents. Threatening the nation's independence were renewed Haitian invasions occurring in 1844, 1845–49, 1849–55, and 1855–56.[36]:page number needed
Meanwhile, archrivals Santana and Buenaventura Báez held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily. They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to another power: Santana favored Spain, and Báez the United States.
Tags:Dop,Dominican War Of Independence, | |
| The voluntary colony and the Restoration republic | |
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See also: Dominican Restoration War
General Gregorio Luperón, Restoration hero and later President of the Republic
In 1861, after imprisoning, silencing, exiling, and executing many of his opponents and due to political and economic reasons, Santana signed a pact with the Spanish Crown and reverted the Dominican nation to colonial status, the only Latin American country to do so. His ostensible aim was to protect the nation from another Haitian annexation.[38] But opponents launched the War of the Restoration in 1863, led by Santiago RodrÃguez, Benito Monción, and Gregorio Luperón, among others. Haiti, fearful of the re-establishment of Spain as colonial power on its border, gave refuge and supplies to the revolutionaries.[38] The United States, then fighting its own Civil War, vigorously protested the Spanish action. After two years of fighting, Spain abandoned the island in 1865.[38]
Political strife again prevailed in the following years; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt. It was now Báez's turn to act on his plan of annexing the country to the United States, where two successive presidents were supportive.[18][dead link][35][39] U.S. President Grant desired a naval base at Samaná and also a place for resettling newly freed Blacks.[40] The treaty, which included U.S. payment of $1.5 million for Dominican debt repayment, was defeated in the United States Senate in 1870[35] on a vote of 28–28, two-thirds being required.[41][42][43]
Ulises 'LilÃs' Heureaux, President of the Republic 1882–84, 1886–99
Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878. A new generation was thence in charge, with the passing of Santana (he died in 1864) and Báez from the scene. Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s, which saw the coming to power of General Ulises Heureaux.[44]
"LilÃs", as the new president was nicknamed, enjoyed a period of popularity. He was, however, "a consummate dissembler", who put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state. Heureaux became rampantly despotic and unpopular.[44][45] In 1899 he was assassinated. However, the relative calm over which he presided allowed improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry was modernized,[46]:p10 and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants, both from the Old World and the New.
From 1902 on, short-lived governments were again the norm, with their power usurped by caudillos in parts of the country. Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay Heureaux's debts, faced the threat of military intervention by France and other European creditor powers.[47]
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| U.S. interventions and occupation | |
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See also: 1916 United States occupation of the Dominican Republic
U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt sought to prevent European intervention, largely to protect the routes to the future Panama Canal, as the canal was already under construction. He made a small military intervention to ward off the European powers, proclaimed his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and in 1905 obtained Dominican agreement for U.S. administration of Dominican customs, then the chief source of income for the Dominican government. A 1906 agreement provided for the arrangement to last 50 years. The United States agreed to use part of the customs proceeds to reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic, and assumed responsibility for said debt.[18][dead link][47]
After six years in power, President Ramón Cáceres (who had himself assassinated Heureaux)[44] was assassinated in 1911. The result was several years of great political instability and civil war. U.S. mediation by the William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson administrations achieved only a short respite each time. A political Tags: | |
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