Photo:1
Photo:2
Photo:3
Photo:4
Photo:1 Photo:2 Photo:3 Photo:4 |
| Cultivation | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Fragaria × ananassa 'Gariguette,' a cultivar grown in southern France
Strawberry cultivars vary remarkably in size, color, flavor, shape, degree of fertility, season of ripening, liability to disease and constitution of plant.[4] Some vary in foliage, and some vary materially in the relative development of their sexual organs. In most cases the flowers appear hermaphroditic in structure, but function as either male or female.[5]
For purposes of commercial production, plants are propagated from runners and, in general, distributed as either bare root plants or plugs. Cultivation follows one of two general models, annual plasticulture[6] or a perennial system of matted rows or mounds.[7] A small amount of strawberries are also produced in greenhouses during the off season.[8]
A garden using the plasticulture method
The bulk of modern commercial production uses the plasticulture system. In this method, raised beds are formed each year, fumigated, and covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion. Plants, usually obtained from northern nurseries, are planted through holes punched in this covering, and irrigation tubing is run underneath. Runners are removed from the plants as they appear, to encourage the plants to put most of their energy into fruit development. At the end of the harvest season, the plastic is removed and the plants are plowed into the ground.[6][9] Because strawberry plants more than a year or two old begin to decline in productivity and fruit quality, this system of replacing the plants each year allows for improved yields and denser plantings.[6][9] However, because it requires a longer growing season to allow for establishment of the plants each year, and because of the increased costs in terms of forming and covering the mounds and purchasing plants each year, it is not always practical in all areas.[9]
The other major method, which uses the same plants from year to year growing in rows or on mounds, is most common in colder climates.[6][7] It has lower investment costs, and lower overall maintenance requirements.[7] Yields are typically lower than in plasticulture.[7]
A third method uses a compost sock. Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce significantly higher oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), flavonoids, anthocyanins, fructose, glucose, sucrose, malic acid, and citric acid than fruit produced in the black plastic mulch or matted row systems.[10] Similar results in an earlier 2003 study conducted by the US Dept of Agriculture, at the Agricultural Research Service, in Beltsville Maryland, confirms how compost plays a role in the bioactive qualities of two strawberry cultivars.[11]
Fragaria × ananassa 'Chandler,' a short-day commercial cultivar grown in California
Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit.[4][12] Traditionally, this has consisted of a division between "June-bearing" strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and "ever-bearing" strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season.[12] Research has shown recently that strawberries actually occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These refer to the day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of photoperiod that induces flower formation. Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod.[13]
Strawberries may also be propagated by seed, though this is primarily a hobby activity, and is not widely practiced commercially. A few seed-propagated cultivars have been developed for home use, and research into growing from seed commercially is ongoing.[14] Seeds (achenes) are acquired either via commercial seed suppliers, or by collecting and saving them from the fruit.
Strawberries can also be grown indoors in strawberry pots.
[ Tags:Fragaria,France,Achenes,Hermaphroditic,Plasticulture,Fumigated,Flavonoids,California,Photoperiod,Energy, | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Manuring and harvesting |
Most strawberry plants are now fed with artificial fertilizers, both before and after harvesting, and often before planting in plasticulture.[15]
The harvesting and cleaning process has not changed substantially over time. The delicate strawberries are still harvested by hand.[16] Grading and packing often occurs in the field, rather than in a processing facility.[16] In large operations, strawberries are cleaned by means of water streams and shaking conveyor belts.[17]
[ | Tags:Water, Pests |
Around 200 species of pests are known to attack strawberries both directly and indirectly.[18] These pests include slugs, moths, fruit flies, chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth, mites, aphids, and others.[18][19]
A number of species of Lepidoptera feed on strawberry plants; for details see this list.
[ | Tags:Slugs,Moths,Mites,Aphids, Diseases |
See also: List of strawberry diseases
Strawberry plants can fall victim to a number of diseases.[20] The leaves may be attacked by powdery mildew, leaf spot (caused by the fungus Sphaerella fragariae), leaf blight (caused by the fungus Phomopsis obscurans), and by a variety of slime molds.[20] The crown and roots may fall victim to red stele, verticillium wilt, black root rot, and nematodes.[20] The fruits are subject to damage from gray mold, rhizopus rot, and leather rot.[20] The plants can also develop disease from temperature extremes during winter.[20] When watering your strawberries, be sure to water only the roots and not the leaves, as moisture on the leaves encourages growth of fungus. Ensure that the strawberries are placed in a windy area to prevent the fungus from occurring.
[ | Tags:Powdery Mildew,Leaf Spot,Leaf Blight,Phomopsis Obscurans,Slime Molds,Verticillium,Black Root Rot,Nematodes,Gray Mold,Rhizopus, Production trends |
Strawberry output in 2005
World strawberry production in tonnes[21]
Country
2005
2006
2007
2008
Egypt
100,000
100,000
104,000
200,254
Germany
146,500
173,230
158,658
150,854
Italy
146,769
131,305
57,670
155,583
Japan
196,200
190,700
193,000
Mexico
162,627
191,843
176,396
207,485
Morocco
118,600
112,000
100,000
130,000
Poland
184,627
193,666
174,578
200,723
Russia
221,000
227,000
230,400
145,000
Korea, South
201,995
205,307
203,227
Spain
320,853
333,485
263,900
Turkey
200,000
211,127
250,316
261,078
United Kingdom
68,600
73,900
87,200
USA
1,053,242
1,090,436
1,133,703
1,148,530
Total world
3,782,906
3,917,140
3,824,678
4,068,454
[ | Tags:Egypt,Germany,Italy,Japan,Mexico,Morocco,Poland,Russia,Korea, South,Spain,Turkey,United Kingdom,Usa,Total World, Agronomy |
A diorama created from beeswax by Dr. Henry Brainerd Wright at the Louisiana State Exhibit Museum in Shreveport, Louisiana depicts strawberry harvesting. Strawberries are particularly grown in the southeastern portion of the state about Hammond.
Strawberries are an easy plant to grow, and can be grown almost anywhere in the world. The best thing to do is to buy a plant in early to middle spring. Place the plant preferably in full sun, and in somewhat sandy soil. Strawberries are a strong plant that will survive many conditions, but, during the time that the plant is forming fruit, it is important for it to get enough water. Strawberries can also be grown as a potted plant, and will still produce fruit.
A strawberry plant will send out shoots in an attempt to propagate a new plant, and, if left alone, it will be successful in doing so, but this shoot can be cut off, and placed wherever you wish to start a new plant.
[ | Tags:Diorama,Louisiana State Exhibit Museum, Uses |
In addition to being consumed fresh, strawberries can be frozen, made into preserves, as well as dried and used in such things as cereal bars. Strawberries are a popular addition to dairy products, as in strawberry-flavored ice cream, milkshakes, smoothies, and yogurts. Strawberries and Cream is a popular dessert, famously consumed at Wimbledon. Strawberry pie is also popular. Strawberries can be dipped in melted chocolate fondue as a healthier way to enjoy chocolate.[22]
Strawberry pigment extract can be used as a natural acid/base indicator due to the different color of the conjugate acid and conjugate base of the pigment.[23]
[ | Tags:Preserves,Cream,Dessert,Wimbledon,Chocolate,Fondue, Nutrition |
One cup (144 g) of strawberries contains approximately 45 calories (188 kJ) and is an excellent source of vitamin C and flavonoids.[24][25][26]
Category
Nutrient
Units
1 cup (144 g) whole
Proximates
Water
g
132
Energy
kcal
43
Energy
kJ
181
Protein
g
0.88
Total lipid (fat)
0.53
Carbohydrate, by difference
10.1
Fibre, total dietary
3.3
Ash
0.62
Minerals
Calcium
mg
20
Iron
0.55
Magnesium
14
Phosphorus
27
Potassium
240
Sodium
1.44
Zinc
0.19
Copper
0.07
Manganese
0.42
Selenium
µg
1.01
Vitamins
Vitamin C, ascorbic acid
mg
82
Thiamin
0.03
Riboflavin
0.1
Niacin
0.33
Pantothenic acid
0.49
Vitamin B-6
0.09
Folate
µg
25
Vitamin B-12
µg
0
Vitamin A, IU
IU
39
Vitamin A, RE
µg RE
4.3
Vitamin E
mg ATE
0.20
Lipids
Fatty acids, saturated
g
0.03
16:0
0.02
18:0
0.006
Fatty acids, monounsaturated
0.075
16:1
0.001
18:1
0.073
Fatty acids, polyunsaturated
0.27
18:2
0.16
18:3
0.11
Cholesterol
mg
0
Phytosterols
17
Amino acids
Tryptophan
g
0.01
Threonine
0.027
Isoleucine
0.02
Leucine
0.045
Lysine
0.036
Methionine
0.001
Cystine
0.007
Phenylalanine
0.026
Tyrosine
0.030
Valine
0.026
Arginine
0.037
Histidine
0.017
Alanine
0.045
Aspartic acid
0.20
Glutamic acid
0.13
Glycine
0.035
Proline
0.027
Serine
0.033
[ | Tags:Vitamin C,Protein,Fat,Carbohydrate,Fibre,Ash, Allergy |
Some people experience an anaphylactoid reaction to the consumption of strawberries.[27] The most common form of this reaction is oral allergy syndrome, but symptoms may also mimic hay fever or include dermatitis or hives, and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems. Some research suggests that the allergen may be tied to a protein involved in the ripening of fruits, which was named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1). Homologous proteins are found in birch and apple, which suggests that people may develop cross-reactivity to all three species.
White-fruited strawberry cultivars, lacking Fra a1, may be an option for strawberry allergy sufferers. Since they lack a protein necessary for normal ripening, they do not produce the flavonoids that turn the mature berries of other cultivars red. They ripen but remain white, pale yellow or "golden", appearing like immature berries; this also has the advantage of making them less attractive to birds. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named 'Sofar' is available.[28][29]
[ | Tags: Gallery |
Ready to eat Strawberries
Closeup of the surface of a strawberry shows achenes with style and stigma attached
Strawberry flowers and developing fruit
Halved strawberry showing internal structure
Ripe and unripe strawberries
Organic strawberry in Romania
[ | Tags: See also |
California Strawberry Commission
List of strawberry cultivars
Musk Strawberry (hautbois strawberry)
Fragaria vesca (alpine strawberry)
Plant City, Florida (winter strawberry capital of the world)
Fraise Tagada (strawberry-shaped candy popular in France)
[ | Tags: References |
^ "Strawberry, The Maiden With Runners". Botgard.ucla.edu. http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Fragaria/index.html. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ "Strawberries by Martin Welsh, history, variety and cultivation of strawberries". Nvsuk.org.uk. http://www.nvsuk.org.uk/growing_show_vegetables_1/strawberry.php. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ Esau, K. 1977. Anatomy of seed plants. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
^ a b "G6135 Home Fruit Production: Strawberry Cultivars and Their Culture | University of Missouri Extension". Extension.missouri.edu. http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6135. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ Strawberry Growing, Stevenson Whitcomb Fletcher, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1917. http://books.google.com/books?id=uQA2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=strawberry+hermaphrodite&source=bl&ots=3LwJQvTZnr&sig=CHAv8CX22dgBJkMEXUg8Kr8kfYw&hl=en&ei=PagASrWaIIvAM6Wd1d4H&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#PPR3,M1
^ a b c d "Strawberry Plasticulture Offers Sweet Rewards". Ag.ohio-state.edu. 2002-06-28. http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~news/story.php?id=2126. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ a b c d http://www.newenglandvfc.org/pdf_proceedings/StawberryProduction.pdf
^ "Pritts Greenhouse Berried Treasures". Hort.cornell.edu. http://www.hort.cornell.edu/department/faculty/pritts/grnhouse.html. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ a b c "Strawberry Fields Forever". Noble.org. http://www.noble.org/Ag/Horticulture/StrawberryFields/index.html. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ Wang SW., Millner P. (November 2009). "Effect of Different Cultural Systems on Antioxidant Capacity, Phenolic Content, and Fruit Quality of Strawberries (Fragaria × aranassa Duch.)". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (ACS Publications) 57 (20): 9651–9657. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf9020575.
^ Wang SY, Lin HS (November 2003). "Compost as a soil supplement increases the level of antioxidant compounds and oxygen radical absorbance capacity in strawberries". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51 (23): 6844–50. doi:10.1021/jf030196x. PMID 14582984.
^ a b "Proper Cultivation Yields Strawberry Fields Forever". Larrysagers.com. 1992-04-15. http://www.larrysagers.com/weeklyarticles/proper_cultivation_yields_strawberry_fields_forever_92-04-15.html. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ S. C. Hokanson, J. L. Maas, 2001. Strawberry biotechnology, Plant Breeding Reviews 21:139–179
^ "Journal Article". SpringerLink. http://www.springerlink.com/content/h7836v248q76740r/. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ "HS1116/HS370: Nitrogen Fertilization of Strawberry Cultivars: Is Preplant Starter Fertilizer Needed?". Edis.ifas.ufl.edu. 2007-08-06. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/document_hs370. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ a b "Commercial Postharvest Handling of Strawberries (Fragaria spp.)". Extension.umn.edu. http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG6237.html. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ "Article: Conveyors improve the fruits of processor's labors.(Frexport S.A. de... | AccessMyLibrary - Promoting library advocacy". AccessMyLibrary. 2000-01-01. http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-5729041_ITM. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ a b "Insect Pests of Strawberries and Their Management". Virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu. 2000-05-03. http://www.virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu/StrawMaster.html. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ "Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook | CFANS | University of Minnesota". Ipmworld.umn.edu. 2009-11-20. http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/rao.htm. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ a b c d e "Strawberry Diseases". Extension.umn.edu. http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG1148.html. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ FAO stat
^ A Healthier Way to Enjoy Chocolate
^ http://alameda.peralta.edu/Projects/20295/Chem_1B_Lab_Manual/Experiment_9_-_pH_indicators.doc
^ "Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Strawberries, raw". Nutritiondata.com. http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts/fruits-and-fruit-juices/2064/2. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ BonkeurInternet. "Strawberry Nutrition Facts. Health, Food, Diet". Thefruitpages.com. http://www.thefruitpages.com/chartstrawberries.shtml. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ "Strawberry Nutrition". Sweetdarling.com. 1997-07-14. http://www.sweetdarling.com/lfiapp/Nutritional.cfm. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ Robinson, Kerry. "Food Safety, Healthy Eating and Nutrition Information". IFIC. http://www.ific.org/foodinsight/2003/ja/foodsensfi403.cfm. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
^ Hjernø K, Alm R, Canbäck B, et al. (March 2006). "Down-regulation of the strawberry Bet v 1-homologous allergen in concert with the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway in colorless strawberry mutant". Proteomics 6 (5): 1574–87. doi:10.1002/pmic.200500469. PMID 16447153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmic.200500469.
^ The chemistry of strawberry allergy (includes 'Sofar' reference)
[ | Tags: |